Sustainable Fuel Technologies Handbook

Title-page_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologies-Handbook
Sustainable Fuel Technologies Handbook
Copyright_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologies-Handbook
Copyright
Contents_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologies-Handbook
Contents
List-of-contributors_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologies-Handbook
List of contributors
Preface_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologies-Handbook
Preface
1---Overview-of-sustainable-fuel-and-energ_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologie
1 Overview of sustainable fuel and energy technologies
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Sustainable technologies for energy production
1.2.1 Solar energy capturing and usage
1.2.2 Capturing wind energy and its challenges
1.2.3 Hydropower energy capturing and challenges
1.2.4 Other clean and sustainable energy sources and production technologies
1.3 Sustainable technologies for energy, fuel and chemicals production
1.3.1 High-temperature biomass conversion technologies
1.3.1.1 Biomass combustion and challenges
1.3.1.2 Biomass gasification
1.3.1.3 Biomass pyrolysis
1.3.2 Low-temperature biomass conversion processes
1.3.2.1 Biological routes for fuel and chemicals production
1.3.2.2 Catalytic routes for fuels and chemicals production
1.4 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
2---The-second--and-third-generation-biofuel-tech_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Tech
2 The second- and third-generation biofuel technologies: comparative perspectives
Graphical abstract
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Biorefineries
2.3 First-generation biorefineries
2.4 Second-generation biorefineries
2.4.1 Raw feedstock for bioethanol production
2.4.2 Process of bioethanol production
Thermochemical conversion
Biochemical conversion
2.4.2.1 Pretreatment
2.4.2.1.1 Types of pretreatment
2.4.2.2 Inhibitors and their impact on microorganisms
2.4.2.2.1 Enzymatic hydrolysis
2.4.2.3 Fermentation technique of lignocellulosic hydrolysates
2.4.2.4 Enzymatic saccharification and fermentation
2.4.3 Cost estimation
2.4.3.1 Production costs
2.4.3.1.1 Cost prediction
2.4.4 Advantages and disadvantages
2.4.5 Environmental aspect
2.5 Third-generation biorefineries
2.5.1 Technique of algal oil extraction
2.5.1.1 Extraction of oil from algal biomass
2.5.1.2 Conversion of algae to biofuels
2.5.1.3 Steps in production of biofuels from algae
2.5.2 Environmental impact
2.6 SWOT analysis
2.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
3---Biomass--biorefinery--and-biofu_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologies-Handb
3 Biomass, biorefinery, and biofuels
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Biomass
3.1.1.1 Triglyceride
3.1.1.2 Sugar and starch
3.1.1.3 Lignocellulose
3.1.2 Biorefinery
3.1.3 Biofuels
3.2 Traditional biofuels
3.2.1 Biodiesel
3.2.1.1 Catalysts
3.2.1.2 Process variables
3.2.1.3 Process and economics
3.2.1.4 Biodiesel specification
3.2.2 Bio-ethanol
3.2.2.1 Fuel properties
3.2.2.2 Processes
3.2.2.3 Challenges and economics
3.2.3 Bio-butanol
3.2.3.1 Fuel properties
3.2.3.2 Acetone-butanol-ethanol fermentation
3.2.3.3 Fermentation engineering
3.2.3.4 Separation of acetone-butanol-ethanol
3.2.3.5 Economics
3.3 Hydrocarbon biofuels
3.3.1 HDO of vegetable oil
3.3.1.1 Reaction mechanism
3.3.1.2 Catalysts
3.3.1.3 Supports
3.3.1.4 Economics and commercial processes
3.3.2 Fast pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass
3.3.2.1 Process conditions
3.3.2.2 Reactors and commercial processes
3.3.2.3 Hydroprocessing of bio-oil
3.3.3 Fischer–Tropsch synthesis
3.3.3.1 Catalysts
3.3.3.2 Process conditions
3.3.3.3 Commercial processes and economics
3.3.4 Oligomerization of olefins
3.3.4.1 Process parameters
3.3.4.2 Zeolite catalyst
3.3.4.3 Commercial processes
3.3.5 C–C bond formation reactions
3.3.5.1 Aldol-condensation
3.3.5.2 Hydroxyalkylation–alkylation (HAA) reaction
3.4 Fuel additives
3.4.1 γ-Valerolactone (GVL)
3.4.2 Furanic compounds
3.4.2.1 2-Methylfuran (2-MF)
3.4.2.2 2-Methyltetrahydrofuran (2-MTHF)
3.4.2.3 2,5-Dimethylfuran (2,5-DMF)
3.4.2.4 2,5-Dimethyltetrahydrofuran (2,5-DMTHF)
3.4.3 5-Ethoxymethylfurfural (5-EMF)
3.4.4 Alkyl levulinates
3.4.5 Glycerol acetals
3.4.6 Dimethyl ether (DME)
3.5 Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
4---Hydropower-technology_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologies-Handbook
4 Hydropower technology
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Hydropower technologies
4.2.1 Impoundment hydropower
4.2.2 Run-of-river hydroelectricity plant
4.2.2.1 Advantages
4.2.2.1.1 Inclusive advantages
4.2.2.1.2 Less flooding/store
4.2.2.2 Disadvantages
4.2.2.2.1 Accessibility of site
4.2.2.2.2 Ecological effects
4.2.3 Gravitational vortex
4.2.3.1 Gravitational vortex type of water turbine
4.2.4 Pumped storage
4.2.4.1 Regular or artificial storages
4.2.4.2 Economic efficiency
4.2.4.3 Facilities at small scale
4.2.4.4 Pump backed hydroelectric dams
4.2.4.5 Potential advancements
4.2.4.6 Underground stores (reservoirs)
4.2.4.7 Decentralized frameworks
4.2.4.8 Underwater reservoirs
4.3 DAMS
4.3.1 Arch dam
4.3.2 Gravity-based dam
4.3.3 Arc gravity dam
4.3.4 Barrage dam
4.3.5 Embankment dam
4.3.6 Rockfill dam
4.3.7 Concrete face rockfill dam
4.3.8 Earthfill dam
4.3.9 Fixed-crest dam
4.4 Reservoirs
4.4.1 Dammed valley
4.4.2 Coastal reservoirs
4.4.3 Bank-side reservoirs
4.4.4 Service repositories
4.5 Classification of hydropower plant based on power scale
4.6 Construction-based development details
4.7 Benefits and shortcomings of micro hydropower plants
4.7.1 Suitable conditions for micro hydropower plants
4.7.2 Turbines utilized in micro hydro plants
4.8 Small hydro
4.9 Turbines
4.9.1 Impulse turbines
4.9.2 Pelton turbines
4.9.2.1 Nozzle and flow regulation
4.9.2.2 Bucket and runner
4.9.2.3 Casing
4.9.2.4 Braking jet
4.9.2.5 Working of Pelton turbine
4.9.3 Cross-flow
4.9.3.1 Design structure
4.9.3.2 Operational activity
4.9.4 Reaction turbine
4.9.5 Propeller turbine
4.9.6 Bulb turbine
4.9.7 Straflo turbine
4.9.8 Tube turbines
4.9.9 Kaplan turbine
4.9.9.1 Operational activity
4.9.9.2 Applications
4.9.10 Francis turbine
4.9.10.1 Spiral packaging
4.9.10.2 Guide and stay vanes
4.9.10.3 Runner blades
4.9.10.4 Draft tube
4.9.10.5 Operation activity
4.9.10.6 Applications
4.9.11 Kinetic turbine
4.10 Conclusion
References
5---Wind-power-technology_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologies-Handbook
5 Wind power technology
5.1 Historical background
5.2 Energy and power from the wind
5.2.1 Available power in wind
5.2.2 Modern wind turbine
5.2.3 Power output and efficiency considerations
5.2.4 Power versus wind speed characteristics
5.2.5 Extractable limits of wind power
5.2.6 Axial thrust and torque on blades
5.2.7 Concept of solidity
5.2.8 Concept of tip speed ratio
5.3 Wind resource feasibility
5.3.1 Wind power density
5.3.2 Variation of wind speed with height
5.3.3 Wind measurement
5.3.4 Evaluation of suitable sites
5.3.5 Arrangement of turbines in a wind farm
5.4 Wind energy conversion devices
5.4.1 Types of wind energy conversion devices
5.4.2 Dutch type wind turbine
5.4.3 Multibladed type wind turbine
5.4.4 Propeller type wind turbine
5.4.4.1 One-bladed wind turbine
5.4.4.2 Two-bladed wind turbine
5.4.4.3 Three-bladed wind turbine
5.4.5 Savonius type wind turbine
5.4.6 Darrieus type wind turbine
5.4.7 Upwind and downwind wind turbine concept
5.4.8 Horizontal axis versus vertical axis wind turbine [18]
5.4.8.1 Advantages of horizontal axis wind turbine
5.4.8.2 Disadvantages of horizontal axis wind turbine
5.4.8.3 Advantages of vertical axis wind turbine
5.4.8.4 Disadvantages of vertical axis wind turbine
5.4.9 Concepts of aerodynamic forces
5.4.9.1 Drag-type wind turbine
5.4.9.2 Lift-type wind turbine
5.5 Wind electrical generators
5.5.1 Working principle of generators
5.5.2 Classification of wind electrical generators
5.5.3 DC generator
5.5.4 Synchronous generator
5.5.5 Induction generator
5.5.6 Constant speed and variable speed operations of wind turbines
5.5.7 Common strategies for constant speed and variable speed operations
5.5.7.1 Fixed speed system (“Danish” concept)
5.5.7.2 Variable speed (adjustable speed) generators
5.5.7.3 DFIG for variable speed operation
5.5.8 Classification of wind power plants on the basis of generators
5.6 Speed control strategies for wind turbines
5.7 Environmental impact and public perception
5.8 Offshore wind energy
5.9 Wind energy applications
5.10 Wind turbine economics
5.11 Conclusion
References
6---Enabling-solar-photovoltaics-penetration-in-hi_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Tec
6 Enabling solar photovoltaics penetration in highly dependent African fossil fuel markets
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Complexity of Africa’s energy landscape
6.1.2 Research contribution
6.2 Energy transition in Africa
6.2.1 Country insights
6.2.1.1 Algeria
6.2.1.2 Kenya
6.2.1.3 Nigeria
6.2.1.4 Angola
6.2.2 Subsidies as enablers of fossil fuel dependency
6.2.3 Carbon intensity and Paris agreement
6.3 Solar photovoltaics deployment in oil producing African countries
6.3.1 Rationale for a solar-powered Africa
6.3.2 Climate resilience
6.3.3 Boost to businesses and rural electrification
6.4 Institutional and economic barriers to solar deployment
6.4.1 Carbon pricing and monitoring
6.4.2 Network connection and use
6.4.3 Attributes of financial and regulatory incentives
6.4.3.1 Fixed tariffs for small producers
6.4.3.2 Auctions
6.4.4 Counterparty risk
6.5 Outlook and recommendations
6.5.1 Off-Grid photovoltaics for improved electricity access
6.5.2 Financing solar projects and private sector participation
6.5.3 Market creation
6.6 Conclusion
References
7---An-up-to-date-perspective-of-geothermal_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologi
7 An up-to-date perspective of geothermal power technology
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Preliminary survey stage
7.3 Exploration stage
7.3.1 Geology
7.3.2 Geochemistry
7.3.3 Geophysics
7.3.4 Lab measurements on rock samples
7.3.5 Mechanical stress field
7.3.6 Conceptual model
7.3.7 Numerical model
7.4 Prefeasibility stage
7.5 Exploratory drilling
7.6 Well drilling
7.7 Project planning
7.8 Field development
7.9 Reservoir monitoring at start-up and operation
7.10 Energy conversion
7.10.1 Dry steam technology
7.10.2 Flash steam power plants
7.10.3 Binary cycle power plants
7.10.4 Flash/binary combined cycle
7.10.5 Development of a geothermal power plant
7.11 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
8---Marine-power-technology-wave-ene_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologies-Hand
8 Marine power technology—wave energy
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Wave energy
8.2.1 Wave climate at the Indian coast
8.3 Types of wave energy converters
8.3.1 Wave energy converters based on location
8.3.2 Wave energy converters based on the working principle
8.3.2.1 Archimedes wave swing
8.3.2.2 Wave dragon
8.3.2.3 Point absorbers
8.3.2.4 Attenuator type wave energy converter
8.3.2.5 Oscillating water column–wave energy converter
8.4 Power take-off systems for wave energy converters
8.4.1 Power take-off systems for oscillating water column–wave energy converters
8.4.1.1 Wells turbine
8.4.1.1.1 Principle of operation of Wells turbine
8.4.1.2 Bidirectional impulse turbine
8.4.1.2.1 Principle of operation of impulse turbine
8.4.2 Hydraulic power take-offs
8.4.3 Direct mechanical drive systems
8.4.4 Direct electrical drive systems
8.4.5 Rotary electrical generators
8.4.5.1 Fixed-speed generators
8.4.5.2 Variable-speed generators
8.5 Future of wave energy
8.6 Summary
References
9---Renewable-hydrogen-production-by-water_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologie
9 Renewable hydrogen production by water electrolysis
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Principles of water electrolysis
9.2.1 Thermodynamics of water electrolysis
9.2.1.1 Equilibrium conditions
9.2.1.2 Minimum cell voltage
9.2.1.2.1 Reversible voltage
9.2.1.2.2 Thermoneutral voltage
9.2.1.3 Theoretical operating ranges in water electrolysis
9.2.2 Characterization of the water electrolysis process
9.2.2.1 Kinetic losses and overpotentials
9.2.2.2 Faraday law of electrolysis: theoretical hydrogen production
9.2.2.3 Efficiency and electrochemical performance
9.2.2.3.1 Voltage efficiency
9.2.2.3.2 Faraday efficiency
9.2.2.3.3 Overall efficiency
9.2.3 Main types of water electrolysis
9.3 Alkaline water electrolysis
9.3.1 Technology and operating principle
9.3.2 Components of an alkaline electrolysis cell
9.3.2.1 Electrodes and catalysts
9.3.2.2 Separators: diaphragms and membranes
9.3.2.2.1 Diaphragms
9.3.2.2.2 Anionic exchange membrane
9.3.2.3 Electrolyte
9.3.3 Configuration of an alkaline electrolyzer
9.3.3.1 Main cell designs
9.3.3.2 Stack configuration
9.3.4 Developments, limitations, and future perspectives
9.4 Proton exchange membrane water electrolysis
9.4.1 Technology and operating principle
9.4.2 Components of a proton exchange membrane electrolysis cell
9.4.2.1 Membrane-electrode assembly
9.4.2.1.1 Electrodes and catalysts
9.4.2.1.2 Proton exchange membrane: electrolyte
9.4.2.2 Liquid–gas diffusion layers
9.4.2.3 Bipolar plates
9.4.3 Configuration of a proton exchange membrane electrolyzer
9.4.4 Developments, limitations, and future perspectives
9.5 Solid oxide water electrolysis
9.5.1 Technology and operating principle
9.5.2 Components of a solid oxide electrolysis cell
9.5.2.1 Electrolyte
9.5.2.2 Electrodes
9.5.2.3 Interconnectors
9.5.3 Solid oxide electrolysis cell and stack configuration
9.5.4 Developments, limitations, and future perspectives
9.6 Electrolysis system technology
9.6.1 System lay-out and balance of plant
9.6.2 Manufacturers and review of commercial electrolyzers
9.6.3 Perspective of costs
9.7 Integration with renewable energies
References
10---Microbial-production-of-hydrog_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologies-Handb
10 Microbial production of hydrogen
10.1 Molecular basis of microbial hydrogen production
10.1.1 Nitrogenases
10.1.2 Hydrogenases
10.2 Hydrogen-producing microorganisms
10.2.1 Obligatory anaerobic hydrogen producing microorganisms
10.2.2 Facultative aerobic hydrogen producing microorganisms
10.2.3 Photosynthetic hydrogen producing microorganisms
10.3 Processes of microbial hydrogen production
10.3.1 Biophotolysis
10.3.1.1 Direct biophotolysis
10.3.1.2 Indirect biophotolysis
10.3.2 Microbial water–gas shift
10.3.3 Photofermentative hydrogen production
10.3.4 Dark fermentation
10.3.5 Microbial electrolysis cells
10.4 Bioreactors
10.4.1 Photobioreactors
10.4.2 Fermentors
10.4.3 Microbial electrolysis cells configurations
10.5 Storage and purification
10.6 Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
11---Hydrogen-energy_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologies-Handbook
11 Hydrogen energy
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Production technologies for hydrogen gas
11.2.1 From water: electrolysis and catalytic decomposition
11.2.2 From fossil fuels: gasification and reforming
11.2.3 From biomass: thermochemical and biological process
11.3 Combustion properties of hydrogen
11.3.1 Flame structure and flame instabilities
11.3.2 Flame stretch and flame speed
11.4 Problems relating to using hydrogen: Explosion potential and nox emissions
11.4.1 Explosion characteristics of hydrogen gas
11.4.2 NOx emissions of hydrogen gas
11.5 Conclusion
References
12---Multifaceted-usage-of-miniaturized-energy-tec_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Tec
12 Multifaceted usage of miniaturized energy technologies for sustainable energy harvesting
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Types of miniaturized energy technologies
12.2.1 Triboelectric energy harvesters
12.2.1.1 Introduction
12.2.1.2 Applications
12.2.1.3 Future perspectives
12.2.2 Piezoelectric energy harvesters
12.2.2.1 Introduction
12.2.2.2 Applications
12.2.2.3 Future perspectives
12.2.3 Electromagnetic energy harvesters
12.2.3.1 Introduction
12.2.3.2 Applications
12.2.3.3 Future perspectives
12.2.4 Thermoelectric energy harvesters
12.2.4.1 Introduction
12.2.4.2 Applications
12.2.4.3 Future perspective
12.3 Internet of things
12.4 Summary
References
13---Communicating-energy-consumption--developing-a-low_2021_Sustainable-Fue
13 Communicating energy consumption: developing a low-cost, real-time, SMS feedback tool for off-grid household electricity...
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Consumption information access in off-grid households
13.2.1 Investment growth in the off-grid industry
13.2.2 Feasibility of an SMS-based feedback tool in rural Africa
13.2.3 Mode of communication and message interpretation
13.3 Solar power system
13.3.1 Power generation
13.3.2 Power storage
13.3.3 Consumption
13.3.4 Message sending and integration
13.4 General process setup
13.4.1 Input section
13.4.2 Processing section
13.4.3 Output section: message categories, details, and sending criteria
13.4.3.1 Priority 1 message
13.4.3.2 Priority 2 message (P2M)
13.4.3.3 Priority 3 message (P3M)
13.4.3.4 Priority 4 message (P4M)
13.4.4 Effective communication strategy
13.4.5 Frequency and time of notification
13.4.6 Potential benefits
13.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
14---Recent-developments-in-hydrogen-fuel-cells_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Techno
14 Recent developments in hydrogen fuel cells: Strengths and weaknesses
14.1 Fuel cells based on hydrogen
14.1.1 History and utilization
14.1.2 Hydrogen fuel
14.1.3 Paramount importance
14.1.4 Fuel cells for stationary applications
14.1.5 Fuel cells for transport applications
14.1.6 Techno commercial barriers
14.1.7 Fuel cell; world view
14.1.8 Road ahead
14.1.9 Infrastructure and commercialization
14.1.9.1 Hydrogen generation by electrolysis of water
14.1.9.2 International scenario
14.1.10 Cost reduction and hydrogen neutrality
14.2 Strategic energy plan
14.3 Technology barriers
14.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
15---Energy-efficiency-in-building_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologies-Handbo
15 Energy efficiency in buildings
15.1 Background: building in the wake of an energy crisis
15.2 Energy use in buildings: energy modeling and energy audits
15.2.1 Energy model
15.2.2 Energy audit
15.3 Passive solar techniques
15.3.1 Passive solar heating design considerations
15.3.1.1 Site consideration
15.3.1.2 Building shape and orientation
15.3.1.3 Indoor space planning
15.3.1.4 Openings
15.3.2 Direct gain
15.3.3 Indirect gain
15.3.4 Sunspaces
15.4 Active solar techniques
15.4.1 Solar collectors
15.4.2 Typical solar collectors
15.4.3 Active cooling
15.4.4 District heating and cooling systems
15.5 Energy-efficient landscaping
15.5.1 Climate and appropriate landscaping
15.5.2 Landscaping methods and their appropriateness
15.5.2.1 Selecting and planting trees and shrubs
15.5.2.2 Shape characteristics
15.5.2.3 Growth
15.5.3 Landscaping for comfort in summer and winter
15.5.3.1 Points to be followed to achieve summer shading
15.5.3.2 Reducing glare and ground temperature
15.5.3.3 Capturing summer breezes
15.5.3.4 Achieving winter sun penetration
15.5.3.5 Blocking cold winter winds
15.5.4 Reducing mechanical heating and cooling costs
15.5.5 Water and its role in energy-efficient landscaping
15.5.5.1 Fountains
15.5.5.2 Water gardens
15.5.5.3 Rainwater harvesting
15.6 Concept of green buildings
15.6.1 Green rating systems prevailing in India
15.6.2 Green roofs
15.7 Conclusion
References
16---Toward-sustainable-long-term-energy-planning-for-citi_2021_Sustainable-
16 Toward sustainable long-term energy planning for cities: an economic and environmental assessment of sustainable fuel te...
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Conventional approaches in city energy planning
16.3 A new conceptual framework for long-term energy scenarios for cities
16.3.1 The sustainability dimension in long-term energy scenarios at the city level
16.3.2 A focus on sustainability assessment: an innovative life cycle assessment adaptation for city planning
16.3.3 Environmental and economic impact assessment of low-carbon energy transition scenarios for the city of Donostia-San ...
16.3.3.1 Case study and baseline assessment
16.3.3.2 Long-term energy scenario for the city of Donostia-San Sebastián
16.3.3.3 Economic and environment life cycle impact assessment of scenarios
16.4 Conclusion
References
17---Oxy-fuel-power-cycles-promoting-the-transition-_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-T
17 Oxy-fuel power cycles promoting the transition to green and sustainable future in the energy sector
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Reducing CO2 emissions in the power production industry
17.3 Carbon capture technologies for thermal power plants
17.3.1 Postcombustion carbon capture
17.3.2 Precombustion carbon capture
17.4 Oxy-fuel combustion cycles with carbon dioxide recirculation: energy efficiency and emission levels
17.4.1 Semiclosed oxy-fuel combustion combined cycle
17.4.2 Modified semiclosed oxy-fuel combustion combined cycle with turbine coolant precooling
17.4.3 MATIANT cycles
17.4.4 Modified MATIANT cycles with turbine coolant precooling
17.4.5 The Allam cycle
17.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
18---Integrated-photocatalytic-hydrogen-production-an_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-
18 Integrated photocatalytic hydrogen production and pollutants or wastes treatment: prospects and challenges
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Utilization of pollutants or waste as sacrificial agents
18.3 Pros and cons of integrated systems
18.4 Reactors for an integrated system
18.5 Prospects and challenges
18.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Concluding-remarks-by-the-editors_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologies-Handboo
Concluding remarks by the editors
Index_2021_Sustainable-Fuel-Technologies-Handbook
Index