Book_5176_C000
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice
Contents
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Book_5176_C001
Chapter 1: Engineering Surveying within ASCE
Introduction
Geomatics and Geospatial Engineering
Surveying Engineer Today
Professional Licensing and Certification
Chapter Topics
References
Book_5176_C002
Chapter 2: Geodesy and Geodetic Computations
Introduction
Brief History of Geodesy
Geometrical Elements of Geodesy
Geodetic Coordinate Systems
Models Used in Geometrical Geodesy
Geodetic Forward and Inverse Computations
Physical Geodesy
Datums
Horizontal Datums
Vertical Datums
New Datums—The Modernized National Spatial Reference System
References
Book_5176_C003
Chapter 3: Map Projections and Local Coordinate Systems
Introduction
Map Projections
Map Projections Appropriate for Surveying and Engineering
Defining Parameters of Projected Coordinate Systems
Map Projection Distortion
Angular Distortion. For conformal projections, angular distortion at a point is the convergence (mapping) angle, γ. The convergence angle is the difference between grid (map) north and geodetic (“true”) north, as shown in Figure 3-4. On the
Linear Distortion. Map projection linear distortion is manifested as a difference in distance between a pair of projected (map grid) coordinates and the true horizontal distance at the surface of the Earth. Although differences in finite distances ar
Projected Coordinate Systems
State Plane Coordinate System
Existing and Historic Versions of the State Plane Coordinate System. Large-scale conformal projected coordinate systems for surveying engineering became common in the United States after the creation of the SPCS in the 1930s by NGS (then the US Coast
State Plane Coordinate System of 2022. As part of modernizing the NSRS, NGS will replace NAD 83 with four new terrestrial reference frames (TRFs) in the near future, probably between 2025 and 2027. Because the original intent was to adopt them in 202
Universal Grids: Universal Transverse Mercator and Universal Polar Stereographic Coordinate Systems
The “Grid versus Ground” Problem
Methods for Reducing Map Projection Distortion
Scale an Existing Map Projection to the Topographic Surface. Soon after creation of the SPCS, surveyors and engineers began applying a scale factor to SPCS coordinates to bring “grid to ground,” so that the projected distances were (nearly) equal to t
Modify the Reference Ellipsoid to Place Its Surface near the Topographic Surface. Once personal computers became readily available, creating and using custom coordinate system definitions became practical. One such custom approach for minimizing line
Define a Projection Developable Surface near the Topographic Surface. Rather than modifying the reference ellipsoid and then defining a tangent (or near tangent) projection, the projection developable surface can instead be placed near the topographi
Low-Distortion Projection Coordinate Systems
Understanding Linear Distortion Behavior. What exactly happens when a PCS is developed that is intended to reduce linear distortion? To help answer this question a hypothetical situation is presented, which will be followed with an example of a simila
Low-Distortion Projection Performance Example. An example of actual LDP performance like that shown schematically in Figure 3-16(c) is provided for the Bend–Redmond–Prineville zone of the Oregon Coordinate Reference System (OCRS), a statewide syste
Selecting Final Design Parameters for Low-Distortion Projections. When designing LDPs (or any projections), it is good practice to use simple and “clean” values for the defining parameters. This is consistent with how SPCS and UTM are defined. The on
Low-Distortion Projected Coordinate Systems Adopted in the United States. Many low-distortion PCSs have been created and are in use throughout the United States, and they are too many to list here. Most of these are single-zone LDP systems intended f
Nonprojected Local Coordinate Systems
Local Geodetic Horizon Systems
Nongeoreferenced Local Coordinate Systems
Summary
References
Book_5176_C004
Chapter 4: Local, Regional, and Global Coordinate Transformations
Introduction
Equation-Based Transformations
Local Horizontal and Vertical Transformations
Horizontal and 3D Transformations. A mathematical operation often performed by surveying engineers is the transformation of horizontal coordinates, often done so that one set of coordinates can be made to match another set. Most surveying engineering
Vertical Transformations. Vertical transformations are probably the most common type of transformation used for surveying data. Such transformations can range from a simple single vertical shift to “inclined plane” corrections as well as to complex g
On the Use of “Calibrations/Localizations” for GNSS-Derived Local Coordinates. GNSS positioning is based on a global (geodetic) coordinate system. Once the geocentric X, Y, Z coordinates have been determined, the GNSS part of the process is don
Horizontal Calibration/Localization
Vertical Calibration/Localization
Summary Discussion on Calibration/Localization
Global Equation–Based Coordinate Transformations
Helmert Transformations. The transformations in this section are based on equations applied to global coordinate systems, even when they are only intended for specific regions. Often they go by the name datum, reference frame, or geographic coord
Transformations among Commonly Used Reference Frames. Helmert transformations are often used to convert geodetic coordinates among reference frames. Commercial geospatial software can contain hundreds of parameter sets for different versions and comb
International Terrestrial Reference System
World Geodetic System of 1984
Three Frames of the North American Datum of 1983
Helmert Transformation Limitations and Other Equation-Based Methods. Although Helmert transformations are commonly used, it is important to realize that a transformation using only 14 Helmert parameters will, in general, not give correct results i
Grid-Based Coordinate Transformations
NADCON (Geometric Coordinate Transformations)
Evolution of 2D NADCON (Versions 1.0 through 4.2). NADCON and its transformation grids have evolved significantly since its initial release in 1990 as version 1.0 (Dewhurst 1990). This and other early purely 2D versions of NADCON (through 4.2) have
Creation of 3D Transformation Grids (GEOCON). After the HARN surveys, additional regional GPS surveys were performed, which are collectively called Federal Base Networks (FBNs), again on a largely state-by-state basis. However, no consistent naming c
Combining all Transformation Grids: NADCON 5.0. In 2016, all the transformations supported by NADCON and GEOCON were combined into a single product called NADCON 5.0. This was a comprehensive rebuild and replacement with three main objectives: (1) to
VERTCON (Vertical Transformations). VERTCON performs vertical transformations between the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29) and the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88). Grid coverage is only available for CONUS (none in Ala
National Geodetic Survey Hybrid and Gravimetric Geoid Models (Vertical Transformations)
VDatum (Vertical Transformations)
Combined Equation- and Grid-Based Transformations
Summary
References
Book_5176_C005
Chapter 5: Analysis and Adjustment of Observational Errors
Introduction
Types of Errors
Population versus Sample
Least-Squares Adjustments
Error Propagation
Weights
Preparing Data for an Adjustment
Postadjustment Statistics
Postadjustment Blunder Detection
Statistical Methods of Determining Map Accuracy
Conclusions
References
Book_5176_C006
Chapter 6: Satellite-Based Surveying Technology
Brief Overview of Global Positioning System
Global Positioning System Segments
Space Segment
Control Segment
User Segment
Global Positioning System Signals
Codes
Wavelength and Frequency
NAV Messages
Pseudorandom Noise Codes
P(Y) Code
C/A Code
Error Sources
Ionospheric Effect (dion)
Satellite Clock Bias (dt)
Receiver Clock Bias (dT)
Orbital Bias (dρ)
Tropospheric Effect (dtrop)
Multipath
Receiver Noise
Differential Global Positioning System versus Relative Positioning
Solutions
Single Point
Relative Positioning
Postprocessing
Correlation of Biases
Global Positioning System Survey Planning
Independent Lines
Station Data Sheet
Observation Logs
Global Navigation Satellite System Surveying Techniques
Static
Real-Time Kinematic
Real-Time Networks
Precise Point Positioning
Global Positioning System Modernization and Global Navigation Satellite System
GPS Satellite Blocks
L2C. Two new codes will be broadcast on the carrier, L2, which previously carried only one military signal exclusively, the P(Y) code. Now, L2 will carry a new military signal, the M-code, and a new civil signal as well. This is a code that was first
L5. L5 is the new carrier being broadcast on the Block IIF satellites. It is centered on 1,176.45 MHz. The basic structure of L5 looks similar to that of L1. Two PRN codes are present on this carrier. Both L5 codes have a 10.23 MHz chipping rate. Thi
L1C. Another civil signal will be broadcast by the Block III satellites. It is known as L1C. As a result of an agreement between the United States and the European Union (EU) reached in June 2004, this signal will be broadcast by both GPS and Galil
Global Navigation Satellite Systems
Globalnaya Navigationnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema. Russia’s Globalnaya Navigationnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema (Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System), known as GLONASS, did not reach full operational status before the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Galileo. At the time of this writing, the European Union’s civilian-controlled Galileo system is expected to reach full operational status in 2022. The satellites are on orbit at a nominal height of about 23,222 km above the Earth. The full constel
BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS). A fourth GNSS system, joining those undertaken by the United States (GPS), Russia (GLONASS), and Europe (Galileo) is the Chinese BeiDou Naviation Satellite System. The system is named after the Big Dipper. Th
Quazi-Zenith Satellite System. The first demonstration satellite of the Japanese, Quazi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), named QZS-1, was launched in 2010 by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) from the Tanegashima Space Center. It is expec
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System. The building of the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (NAVIC aka IRNSS) was authorized by the Indian government in 2006. It provides position, navigation, and timing service in a region from 30°S
Future
References
Book_5176_C007
Chapter 7: Leveling and Total Stations
Introduction to Levels and Leveling
Leveling Instruments and Equipment
Levels
Tripods
Leveling Rods
Leveling Rod Bubbles
Core Leveling Procedures
Setting up the Level
Reading the Rod
Two-Peg Test
Base Leveling
General Leveling
Recording Methods
Height of Collimation Method. This is the method that is widely known and used in the United States. As the elevation is carried through the entire method, the elevation of the starting bench mark should be known before leveling begins. The method foc
Rise and Fall Method. This is the standard international method for recording and reducing leveling observations. It has the advantage of better checking and reduction capabilities, as well as not requiring the final elevations to be known to complet
Grid Leveling. This recording method is used for topographic surveys. A grid sheet is drawn up at a suitable scale for each setup, and the side shots are recorded on the grid sheet at their appropriate 2D location, as shown in Figure 7-16. The back
Basic Leveling Processes
Point Leveling. When the elevations of widely separated points are required, point leveling is used. This usually takes the form of base leveling. New or unknown points are connected to points with known elevations by flights of levels that are run tw
Line Leveling. Much leveling is undertaken for support of construction work, and the points whose elevation is determined tend to fall along well-defined lines. Longitudinal sections and cross sections covering a largely linear construction project,
Area Leveling. This is used for topographic surveying, where a region is covered with points, commonly on a regular grid. Various techniques may be used to help with the 2D location of the measured points, such as the grid leveling recording method p
Errors in Leveling
Orthometric and Dynamic Corrections
Adjustment
Introduction to Total Stations
Design of Modern Total Stations
Total Station Equipment
Tripods
Data Collectors
Prisms
Orientation
Total Station Extensions
Reflectorless
Robotic
Imaging
Targeting
Scanning
Global Navigation Satellite System Connection
Programmable
Setting Up the Total Station
Tripod
Instrument
Optical Plummet
Laser Plummet
Final Leveling
Heights
Zeroing Instrument
Basic Total Station Procedures
Measuring Horizontal Angles
Reducing Horizontal Angles
Measuring Vertical Angles
Reducing Vertical Angles
Deflection of the Vertical
Measuring Distances
Reducing Distances
Refraction and Curvature
Point Codes
Electronic Distance Measurement Calibration
Total Station Processes
Traversing
Networks
Topographic Surveys
Layout Work
References
Book_5176_C008
Chapter 8: Terrestrial Laser Scanning
Introduction
Overview
Key References
Applications in Civil Engineering
System Types
Data Structure and Scan Patterns
Data Quality Considerations
Differences to Airborne and Mobile lidar
TLS Workflows
Planning and Preliminary Site Surveys
Field Procedures
Leveling/Inclination Sensors
Field Notes
Data Backup Strategies
Care of Equipment
Registration Strategies
Calibration Procedures
Transformation Points versus Validation Points
Rigid-Body Coordinate Transformations
Translation. Translation is straightforward to pull out of the matrix:
Rotations. The rotations can be found with a little math to simplify some of these elements:
Coordinate Systems
Direct Georeferencing
Target-Based Registration
Reflective Targets. Reflective targets can be discs, cylinders, spheres, or other shapes. Pesci and Teza (2008) provide a rigorous assessment of reflective targets and artifacts for TLS. The advantage to reflective targets is that, given their stron
Pattern Targets. Pattern targets can either be existing, well-defined objects in the scene (e.g., pavement markings) or placed. Some scan manufacturers provide templates of targets that can be printed and placed throughout the scene. (Note that a hig
Target Registration Process. Regardless of the types of targets, common targets between scans are matched together, and then a scan is matched to the coordinate system of another scan or the project coordinate system in the registration. In software,
Cloud-to-Cloud Surface Matching
Limitations of Cloud-to-Cloud Surface Matching. A key limitation of point-to-point correspondence is that there is no guarantee that points in the first scan represent the same objects and point in space as the corresponding points in Scan B. To help
Mixed Approaches
Comparison
Registration Quality Control
Uncertainty Analysis. A current limitation in TLS is that formal uncertainties per point are often not available. Recent research has focused on developing theoretical uncertainty models for TLS. These uncertainties are useful for improved point selec
Quantitative Error Reporting from Registration Results. Most TLS software will report the errors calculated during the registration for the TCTs. It is important to holistically evaluate these errors and report them at a confidence interval (typicall
Validation Control Points. Given the limitations of registration errors, VCTs can help provide a more realistic estimate of error in the dataset. (See Registration Strategies for a discussion on TCTs versus VCTs.) This section provides some examples
Visual Verification. Visual checks and verifications should always be performed in addition to the quantitative approaches even when the results are satisfactory. Although large misalignments are, in general, easy to spot when visually inspecting the
Point Density Evaluations. Similar to accuracy, point density should be evaluated throughout the dataset, particularly for objects of interest. Selecting appropriate resolutions for scanning is critical. The USIBD Level of Detail specification provid
Data Completeness. Another consideration for quality control is the frequency of data gaps in the scan survey. Although most of the data may meet resolution requirements, there will be many cases where there will be data gaps (i.e., shadows, occlusio
Processing Workflows
Filtering
Density Filters
Topographic Mapping and Digital Terrain Modeling
Ground Filtering. Ground filtering is a common task for creating DTMs with lidar datasets. Although, in general, automated ground and other surface extraction algorithms work well for airborne lidar data, these can be problematic to implement on TLS d
Ultra-High-Resolution Modeling. Highly detailed surface models may be desired for applications such as change analysis (discussed later). In these cases, the data can be gridded or triangulated for the analysis depending on the orientation of the obj
Geometric Modeling
Feature Extraction
Segmentation and Classification Procedures. Point-cloud segmentation and classification research is rapidly progressing for a wide variety of applications. This section presents an overview of existing work on the segmentation and classification of po
Examples of Transportation Feature Extractions. Algorithms and software to extract transportation-related objects from point-cloud datasets using many of the aforementioned techniques are evolving rapidly. Belton and Bae (2010) present approaches f
Point Cloud to Finite-Element Models. Conversion of lidar point-cloud data into solid models, necessary for engineering analysis can be a tedious, manual process. However, recent research has provided some promising solutions. Tang et al. (2010) pr
Processing Quality Control
Analyses
Visualization Analysis
Change Analysis
Clash Detection
Reverse Engineering
Intensity Analyses
Visibility Analyses
Structural Analyses
Best Practices
Future Changes
Acknowledgments
References
Book_5176_C009
Chapter 9: Mobile Terrestrial Laser Scanning and Mapping
Introduction
Key References
System Components
Applications
Project Workflow
Planning
Preliminary Site Surveys
Data Acquisition
Georeferencing
Geometric Corrections. The quality of the direct georeferencing solution (i.e., the blended navigation solution from the post-processed GNSS-aided IMU data) can vary considerably, as a function of a number of variables, which include the following: in
Error Sources in Georeferencing. Given that MTLS integrates data from multiple sensors, and a wide range of systems are available that utilize diverse components, it is important to understand the contribution of each error source to the overall erro
Quality Control. Quality control should be planned and implemented in each stage of the mobile lidar workflow. Before the survey, the system calibration needs to be verified. During data acquisition, the data collection mission needs to be monitored,
Post-Processing
Computations/Analysis
Packaging/Delivery
Indoor Mobile Mapping Technology
Sensors for Indoor Mapping
SLAM Algorithms
Indoor Mobile Mapping Systems
Looking Forward
Acknowledgments
References
Book_5176_C010
Chapter 10: Aerial Surveying Technology
Aerial Photogrammetry
Introduction
Cameras
Camera Distortion and Calibration
Basic Principles of Aerial Photogrammetry
Analytical Photogrammetry
Stereoplotters
Digital Elevation Models
Orthophotos
Project Planning
Aerial Laser Scanning
Introduction
Fundamental Principles
Determination of Position and Orientation
Properties of Aerial Laser Scanners
Topographic and Bathymetric Aerial Laser Scanners
Ranging Modalities
Beam Divergence
Laser Scanner Characteristics
Operational Aspects of Airborne Laser Scanning
Project Planning and Execution
Calibration
Quality Control and Accuracy Reporting
Data Processing
Data Products
Point Cloud. The raw output generated from a processed ALS survey is a densely sampled set of x, y, z measurements of the underlying reflecting surface called a 3D point cloud (Figure 10-11). Point cloud data provide a three-dimensional repres
Filtering and Terrain Modeling. After reducing and editing the observations, the next major step in ALS data processing is point cloud filtering. The most common goal of filtering ALS observations is to identify and remove points associated with vege
Intensity. In addition to recording ranges and generating point clouds, airborne lidar systems usually record the return signal strength of the pulse echo (e.g., 8 bit or 12 bit values). As discussed in Chapter 8, these amplitude measurements are com
Aerial Laser Scanning Performance
Error Budget
Advantages and Limitations of Aerial Laser Scanning
Unmanned Aircraft Systems
Introduction
Platforms and Sensors
Aerial Mapping with Unmanned Aircraft Systems
Mission Planning
Flight Design
Ground Sample Distance and Overlap. For conducting aerial photogrammetry missions with small UASs, the two main parameters that govern flight design are GSD and image overlap. GSD is the projected pixel area on the ground and is a function of the came
Rolling and Global Shutter Cameras. Another factor to consider when designing UAS mapping missions is the type of camera used. Rolling shutter cameras read the image line by line or in groups. Camera movement or object movement during this reading ti
Ground Control
Structure-from-Motion Photogrammetry
Unmanned Aircraft Systems-Structure-from-Motion Accuracy
Regulations
References
Book_5176_C011
Chapter 11: Survey Control
Introduction
Horizontal, Vertical, or Both
Local Control
Geodetic Control
Active Control: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS) Network
Active Control: Real-Time Network
Passive Control
Project Planning and Control
Setting New Control
Common Tools for Control Surveying
Geodetic Leveling Specifications
GNSS Control Surveying Guidelines: NOS NGS-58 and 59
Online Positioning User Service-Static
Online Positioning User Service-Rapid Static
Online Positioning User Service-Projects
Other Online Tools for Global Navigation Satellite System Processing
Adjustments and Evaluating Control
References
Book_5176_C012
Chapter 12: Construction Surveys
Introduction
Before Construction
During Construction
After Construction
Horizontal and Vertical Control
Horizontal Control
Vertical Control
Construction Survey Task Sequence
Construction Survey Equipment
Field Notes
Construction Staking and Layout
Construction Staking Equipment
Construction Stakes
Reference Stakes
Slope Stakes
Grade Stakes
Site Layout Stakes
Structure Stakes
Right-of-Way Markers and Property Boundary Monuments
Earthwork Computations
As-Built Surveys
Machine Guidance and Control
References
Book_5176_C013
Chapter 13: Survey Records
Introduction
Typical Survey Records
Company Standards as Survey Records
Construction Documents as Survey Records
Numeric Survey Records
Data Source. All control networks (see Chapter 11) are based on a reference frame and vertical datum. These define the basic mathematical and geometric relationship between the survey measurements made and the surface of the Earth. Survey records must
Raw Field Data. The extent to which raw field data—actual satellite positioning data, total station measurements, and scanner output—are retained as part of the survey records may be a matter of company policy or may be defined by a contract. Being i
Adjusted Data. Data adjustment is an attempt to rationally distribute corrections among field observations (see Chapter 5). This can be done with software employing different adjustment rules and weighting schemes. The network will likely be constrai
Project Computations. Every project requires at least some computation based on the design drawings and the control system. The computations involve everything from basic coordinate geometry for staking to complex three-dimensional models needed for m
Graphic Survey Records
Field Notes. Despite the availability of electronic data collection, manually kept field notes are often an effective supplement to the electronic record. For example, ties to survey stations, the proximity of a station to adjacent buildings, fences,
Maps and Drawings. Engineering surveys proceed from the maps and design drawings as referenced in the construction agreement or work order. It is frequently necessary for the surveying engineer to prepare additional maps to document work during const
Project Monumentation
Control Diagram
Mark Descriptions
Report of Survey
Summary
References
Book_5176_C014
Chapter 14: Information Systems in Civil Engineering
Introduction
Geographic Information Systems
Building Information Modeling
Coordinate Systems in Geographic Information Systems/Building Information Models
Geographic Information Systems/Building Information Modeling Technologies
Computing Hardware and Software
From Point Clouds to Models
Immersive Visualization Technologies
Key Data Models
Key Data Types for Geographic Information Systems
Key Data Types for Building Information Modeling
Database
Databases in Geographic Information Systems
ID Fields
Joining and Relating Tables
Query Languages
Fields and Data Types
Common Spatial Operators and Geoprocessing Tools
Vector Operators
Topology
Raster Operators
Automated Feature Identification in Imagery
Interpolation Techniques
Topographic Operations
Example Geographic Information Systems Applications and Analyses
Example Building Information Modeling Applications
Building Information Modeling for Infrastructure Projects
Building Information Modeling and Light Detection and Ranging for Project Progress Monitoring
Scan-to-Building Information Modeling: Converting Point Clouds into Building Information Models
References
Book_5176_C015
Chapter 15: Professional Services and Design Professionals’ Agreements
Introduction
Contracts 101—The Basic Legal Principles
Offer
Acceptance
Consideration
Consent
Capacity
Legality
Writing
Key Provisions for Design Professionals’ Contracts
Certifications, Guarantees, and Warranties
Incorporation by Reference of Another Contract or Document
A Design Professional’s Indemnity Obligation Must Be Negligence Based
Standard of Care in Negligence
Indemnity—Duty to Defend
Indemnity—Limit Indemnitees
Liability to Owners Based on Claims by Third Parties
Indemnity—Joint and Several Liability
Indemnity—Limits on Liability to Policy Limits
Ownership and Use of Design Professional’s Work Including Copyright
Include a Hold Harmless Clause in the Design Professional’s Contract
Scope of Work
Other Important Areas to Cover in a Design Professional’s Agreement
Examples of Design Professionals’ Agreements
Design Professional’s Employment Agreement
Chapter 15: Appendix
References
Book_5176_IDX
