Supercapacitors and Their Applications: Fundamentals, Current Trends, and Future Perspectives

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Owing to their high-power density, long life, and environmental compatibility, supercapacitors are emerging as one of the promising storage technologies, but with challenges around energy and power requirements for specific applications. This book focusses on supercapacitors including details on classification, charge storage mechanisms, related kinetics, and thermodynamics. Materials used as electrodes, electrolytes, and separators, procedures followed, characterization methods, and modeling are covered, along with emphasis on related applications.

Features:

    • Provides an in-depth look at supercapacitors, including their working concepts and design

    • Reviews detailed explanation of various characterization and modeling techniques

    • Give special focus to the application of supercapacitors in major areas of environmental as well as social importance

    • Covers cyclic voltammetry, charging–discharging curves, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy as characterization techniques

    • Includes a detailed chapter on historical perspectives on the evolution of supercapacitors

    This book is aimed at researchers and graduate students in materials science and engineering, nanotechnology, chemistry in batteries, and physics.

    Author(s): Anjali Paravannoor, Baiju K.V.
    Publisher: CRC Press
    Year: 2023

    Language: English
    Pages: 214
    City: Boca Raton

    Cover
    Half Title
    Title Page
    Copyright Page
    Table of Contents
    Editor Biographies
    Contributors
    Preface
    Chapter 1 Historical Perspectives
    1.1 Introduction
    1.2 Capacitance of a Capacitor
    1.3 Working Principle of a Capacitor
    1.4 Energy Stored in Capacitor
    1.5 Types of Capacitors
    1.5.1 Electrostatic Capacitor
    1.5.1.1 Air Capacitor
    1.5.1.2 Ceramic Capacitor
    1.5.1.3 Mica Capacitor
    1.5.1.4 Paper/Plastic Film Capacitor
    1.5.2 Electrolytic Capacitor
    1.5.2.1 Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitor
    1.5.2.2 Tantalum and Niobium Electrolytic Capacitor
    1.5.3 Supercapacitors
    1.5.3.1 Electric Double-Layer Capacitor (EDLC
    1.5.3.2 Pseudocapacitor
    1.5.3.3 Hybrid Supercapacitor
    1.6 Summary and Outlook
    References
    Chapter 2 Electric Double-Layer Capacitors
    2.1 Introduction
    2.2 Electrical Double-Layer Theories
    2.2.1 The Helmholtz Model
    2.2.2 The Gouy-Chapman or Diffuse Model
    2.2.3 The Stern Model
    2.2.4 Modified Theories
    2.3 Theoretical Treatments and Modelling
    2.3.1 The Classical Equivalent Circuit
    2.3.2 The Three-Branch Model
    2.3.3 The Porous Electrode Theory
    2.3.4 Transmission Line Model (TLM)
    2.4 Energy Density and Power Density
    2.4.1 The Ragone Plot
    2.5 Electrode Materials
    2.5.1 Activated Carbon
    2.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
    2.5.3 Carbon Aerogel
    2.5.4 Carbon Nanofibre (CNF)
    2.5.5 Graphene
    2.5.6 Fullerene
    2.6 Electrolyte Materials
    2.7 Summary and Outlook
    References
    Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Pseudocapacitors
    3.1 Introduction
    3.2 Pseudocapacitors
    3.3 Energetics and Kinetics of Pseudocapacitance
    3.3.1 The Definition of Pseudocapacitance
    3.4 Electrode Materials
    3.4.1 Metal Oxides
    3.4.1.1 Ruthenium Oxide (RuO2
    3.4.1.2 Manganese Oxide (MnO2
    3.4.1.3 Nickel Oxide (NiO
    3.4.1.4 Vanadium Oxides
    3.4.2 Binary and Ternary oxides
    3.4.3 Chalcogenides
    3.4.3.1 Nickel Sulphides
    3.4.3.2 Cobalt Sulphides
    3.4.3.3 Copper Selenides
    3.4.4 Conducting Polymers
    3.4.4.1 Polyaniline (PANI
    3.4.5 Nanostructured Carbon
    3.5 Electrolytes
    3.5.1 Classification of Electrolytes
    3.5.2 Criteria for Selection of Electrolyte
    3.5.3 Additives in Electrolytes
    3.6 Separators
    3.7 Current Collectors
    3.8 Conclusions
    References
    Chapter 4 Looking Deeper into Electrode Processes
    4.1 Introduction
    4.2 Fundamentals of Electric Double-Layer Capacitance and
    Pseudocapacitance
    4.2.1 Materials with Pseudocapacitive Behavior
    4.2.1.1 Intrinsic Pseudocapacitor Materials
    4.2.1.2 Extrinsic Pseudocapacitor Materials
    4.2.2 Intercalation Pseudocapacitance
    4.2.2.1 Cation Intercalation Pseudocapacitance
    4.2.2.2 Anion Intercalation Pseudocapacitance
    4.2.3 Carbon-Based Electrode Materials
    4.3 Effect of Structure and Porosity on Electrochemical Performance of
    Supercapacitors
    4.3.1 Effect of Porosity on Electrochemical Performance
    4.3.2 Effect of Structure on Electrochemical Performance
    4.4 Tuning the Performance of Supercapacitors by Understanding the Concepts
    4.4.1 Methods for Tuning Supercapacitor Performance
    4.4.1.1 Nanostructuring of Electrodes
    4.4.1.2 Chemical Activation of Active Electrode Material
    4.4.1.3 Physical Activation of Active Electrode Material
    4.5 Conclusion
    References
    Chapter 5 Design Considerations
    5.1 Introduction
    5.2 Supercapacitor System Design Considerations
    5.2.1 Cell Voltage
    5.2.2 Frequency Response
    5.2.3 Ambient Temperature
    5.2.4 Polarity
    5.2.5 Lifetime and Cycle Charging
    5.2.6 Humidity
    5.2.7 Efficiency
    5.3 Single Cell Manufacturing
    5.3.1 Electrode
    5.3.2 Electrolyte
    5.3.3 Separator
    5.3.4 Collector Plate
    5.3.5 Sealants
    5.3.6 Different Configurations
    5.3.6.1 Symmetric Supercapacitors
    5.3.6.2 Asymmetric Supercapacitors
    5.3.6.3 Hybrid Capacitors
    5.3.7 Interconnection
    5.4 Summary
    References
    Chapter 6 Characterization Techniques
    6.1 Introduction
    6.2 Cyclic Voltammetry (CV
    6.3 Galvanostatic Charge/Discharge or Chronopotentiometry
    6.4 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS
    6.5 Modelling Techniques
    6.5.1 Empirical Modelling
    6.5.2 Dissipation Transmission Line Models
    6.5.3 Continuum Models
    6.5.4 Atomistic Models
    6.5.5 Quantum Models
    6.5.6 Simplified Analytical Models
    6.6 Summary
    References
    Chapter 7 Design, Fabrication, and Operation
    7.1 Introduction
    7.2 Considerations and Trends for Single-Cell Supercapacitors
    7.2.1 Coin Cell Supercapacitor
    7.2.2 Cylindrical Cell Supercapacitor
    7.2.3 Prismatic Cell Supercapacitor
    7.3 Parameters Affecting Performance
    7.4 Operation of Functional Supercapacitor
    7.4.1 Self-Discharging
    7.4.2 Cell Ageing and Voltage Decay
    7.5 Supercapattery
    7.6 Stack Manufacturing and Construction
    7.7 Summary and Outlook
    References
    Chapter 8 Conventional Applications of Supercapacitors
    8.1 Introduction
    8.2 Load Levelling
    8.2.1 Introduction
    8.2.2 Supercapacitors in Load-Levelling Applications
    8.2.3 Hybrid Supercapacitors in Load-Levelling Applications
    8.3 Regenerative Braking
    8.3.1 Introduction
    8.3.2 Supercapacitors in Regenerative Braking Applications
    8.4 Cranes, Lifts, and Trucks
    8.4.1 Introduction
    8.4.2 Supercapacitors in Cranes
    8.4.3 Supercapacitors in Trucks and Lifts
    8.5 Consumer Electronics
    8.6 Summary and Outlook
    References
    Chapter 9 Portable Electronics and Microsupercapacitors
    9.1 Introduction
    9.2 Portable Electronics
    9.3 Supercapacitors in Wearable Electronics
    9.4 Microsupercapacitors
    9.4.1 Fundamentals of Microsupercapacitors
    9.4.1.1 Sandwich-Like Design
    9.4.1.2 In-Plane Interdigitated Design
    9.4.2 Fabrication Techniques for Interdigital Microsupercapacitors
    9.4.3 Electrode Materials
    9.5 Summary and Outlook
    References
    Chapter 10 Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle
    10.1 Introduction
    10.2 Modern Electric Vehicles
    10.2.1 Major Types of Electric Vehicles
    10.2.1.1 Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV
    10.2.1.2 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV
    10.2.1.3 Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle (FCHEV
    10.2.1.4 Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV
    10.2.1.5 Range Extender Electric Vehicle (REXEV
    10.3 Storage Systems for Electric Vehicle Applications
    10.3.1 Fuel Cells
    10.3.2 Hybrid Storage System (HSS
    10.3.3 Hybrid Supercapacitors for EV Applications
    10.4 The Modeling of Supercapacitors in EVs
    10.4.1 Electric Models
    10.4.2 Thermal Modeling
    10.5 Summary
    References
    Chapter 11 Power Harvesting and Storage System: Supercapacitors Aiding New and Renewable Energy Generation
    11.1 Introduction
    11.2 Integrated Solar Cell–Supercapacitor System
    11.2.1 Device Architecture
    11.2.2 Integrated Silicon Solar Cell–Supercapacitor System
    11.2.3 Integrated OSC–Supercapacitor System
    11.2.4 Integrated DSSC–Supercapacitor System
    11.3 Wind Turbines
    11.3.1 Wind Turbine Power Characteristics
    11.3.2 Supercapacitors Linked to Wind Farms
    11.4 Blue Energy: Capacitive Storage
    11.4.1 Introduction
    11.4.2 Theoretical Analysis
    11.4.3 Capacitive Energy Extraction: Electric Double Layer
    11.4.4 Capacitive Energy Extraction: Faradaic Pseudocapacitor
    11.5 Summary
    References
    Chapter 12 Market Trends, Innovations and Challenges
    12.1 Introduction
    12.2 Market Considerations
    12.2.1 Demand Creation in the Existing Market
    12.2.1.1 Hybrid Energy Storage Systems
    12.2.1.2 Replacement of Traditional Battery Systems
    12.2.1.3 Replacement of Traditional Capacitor Systems
    12.2.2 Market Considerations Specific to End Users
    12.2.2.1 Automobile Electronics
    12.2.2.2 Industrial Electronics
    12.2.2.3 Consumer Electronics
    12.3 Innovative Technologies and Future Perspectives
    12.3.1 Novel Materials
    12.3.2 Technological Developments
    12.3.2.1 Flexible Supercapacitors
    12.3.2.2 Micro Supercapacitors (MSCs
    12.3.2.3 Hybrid Capacitors
    12.3.2.4 Piezoelectric SCs
    12.3.2.5 Shape Memory SCs
    12.3.2.6 Transparent Supercapacitors and Others
    12.3.3 Developments in the Application Scenario
    12.3.3.1 Social Demands
    12.3.3.2 Scalability
    12.4 Challenges Associated with Development of Supercapacitors
    12.4.1 Technical Challenges
    12.4.1.1 Electrode Materials
    12.4.1.2 Electrolytes
    12.4.2 Challenges in the Application Perspective
    12.5 Summary and Outlook
    References
    Index