Structure in the Sea: The Science, Technology and Effects of Purpose-Built Reefs and Related Surfaces

Front Cover
STRUCTURE IN THE SEA
STRUCTURE IN THE SEA: THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND EFFECTS OF PURPOSE-BUILT REEFS AND RELATED SURFACES
Contents
Copyright
Dedication
Foreword
Preface and Acknowledgments
1 - Structure in the sea: a diversity of natural and human-made habitats
1.1 Structure in the sea: extensive, diverse, hidden
1.1.1 Maritime footprints
1.1.2 Seafloor mapping and monitoring
1.1.3 Hard seafloor ecosystems
1.2 Human-made sea floor habitat structure: the many definitions of artificial reef
1.3 Building knowledge for the technology of primary structured reefs
1.4 Scales, centers, and periods of activity concerning human-made seafloor structures
1.5 Results at-a-glance: successes and shortcomings in deployment of purpose-built structure
1.6 Suspended fish attracting devices, “FADs”: a separate story, a cautionary tale?
1.7 Secondary structure and substrate: unintended reef effects
1.8 Building blocks
References
Further reading
2 - Scientific foundations for artificial reefs and related human-made sea floor structures
2.1 Sciences of natural hard-bottom benthic environments and reef ecosystems
2.2 Context and scope of research disciplines, milestones, and evolving priorities for the science and technology of human-made ...
2.2.1 International conference exchanges, foundations, and milestones
2.3 Questions asked, hypotheses and going beyond attraction-production debate
2.4 Importance of long-term datasets
2.5 Citizen science as a component of research on human-made habitats
2.6 Building blocks
References
Further reading
3 - Purposes and planning of human-made reef structure
3.1 Perspectives on human-made reef structures in the context of ecosystem services and connectivity
3.2 Purposes of human-made seafloor structure: annotated accounts
3.2.1 Submerged breakwaters for coastal defense: beach protection and erosion control
3.2.2 Surfing reefs for recreation
3.2.3 Protection of benthic habitat and fish populations with antitrawling structures
3.2.4 Biofiltration reefs to remove nutrients and improve water quality
3.2.5 Diverting recreational diver pressure from natural reefs
3.2.6 Underwater cultural, spiritual, and artistic enhancement using structure
3.2.7 Create or enhance suitable areas for recreational diving
3.2.8 Restore depleted habitats: context
3.2.8.1 Off-site mitigation for habitat destruction
3.2.8.2 On-site restoration of disturbed habitats
3.2.9 Overview: fisheries and aquaculture enhancement
3.2.9.1 Enhance fisheries of differing scales
3.2.9.2 Enhance commercial fisheries
3.2.9.3 Enhance recreational fisheries
3.2.9.4 Marine ranching and aquaculture for food production
3.2.9.5 Sessile organisms expected to produce biomass for on-site aquaculture harvest
3.2.9.6 Purpose-built reef structure as release sites for hatchery-produced fishes
3.2.9.7 Ornamental aquarium species production
3.2.10 Ecosystems in their own right: human-made structure as a tool in the biological conservation toolbox
3.2.10.1 Conservation of individual species or defined taxa
3.2.10.2 Conservation using purpose-built reef structure in protected areas
3.2.11 Formal and informal education using human-made reefs
3.2.12 Sites for experimentation and observational research
3.2.13 Multi-purpose human-made reef systems
3.3 Planning to optimize intentional seafloor structure
3.3.1 Why is a plan necessary?
3.3.2 Who makes and who uses and is influenced by a plan?
3.3.3 When is a plan needed?
3.3.4 Where and at what locations are plans in effect?
3.3.5 What is in a plan?
3.3.6 How are plans made?
3.3.6.1 Phase I: preliminary, organizational, and conceptual
3.3.6.2 Phase II: framework for planning and management
3.3.6.3 Phase III: environmental analysis and preparations for reef design and placement
3.3.6.4 Phase IV: design of habitat structure(s) and site planning
3.3.6.5 Phase V: construction and maintenance of reefs
3.3.6.6 Phase VI: monitoring of reef system/complex
3.3.6.7 Phase VII: communication and information
3.3.6.8 Phase VIII: management of the reef structures and habitats, as part of the larger ecosystem and global environment
3.4 Building blocks
References
Further reading
4 - Design, siting, engineering, construction, and evaluation of human-made reefs
4.1 Natural and human-made seascapes in context: scales, connections, and effects
4.2 The case for design of human-made ocean structures
4.3 Siting and location of seafloor human-made structure, from units to complexes
4.3.1 Spacing of reef units
4.4 Appropriate and effective materials and fabrication of reef units
4.4.1 Effects of first-use materials in seafloor structure
4.4.2 Secondary, recycled, and opportunistic materials and by-products
4.4.2.1 Surplus and obsolete vessels, intentionally sunk
4.4.2.2 “Reefing” of obsolete energy production platforms
4.5 Design criteria and practices: form and function of purpose-built seafloor structure
4.5.1 Japanese roots for design of reef structure
4.5.2 Optimizing reef durability, stability, and physical effects: engineering
4.5.3 Socio-economics factor in design of structure
4.5.4 Connecting reef physical structure and species life history in reef design
4.5.4.1 Some early lessons and models for establishing “reefiness”(Gyoshō-Do)
4.5.4.2 Design according to life history of species and characteristics of structure
4.5.4.3 Complexity of structure and “ecological effectiveness”
4.5.4.4 Design according to environmental conditions
4.6 From shore to sea: on-land and on-site construction and placement practices
4.7 Postconstruction monitoring and evaluation/assessment: compliance, efficacy, environment
4.7.1 Compliance monitoring: is the structure deployed satisfactorily?
4.7.2 Efficacy monitoring: reef performance toward defined objectives
4.7.3 Environmental monitoring: reef impacts in the larger system
4.8 Building blocks
References
Further reading
5 - Life at and around purpose-built reef and related undersea structures
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Human-made seafloor structure in an ecological context
5.3 Abiotic and biotic factors influence reef habitats and communities/assemblages
5.3.1 Geographic and spatial location and associated environmental factors
5.3.2 Depth
5.3.3 Hydrodynamics
5.3.4 Ambient sediment, nutrient and energy linkages, and influences
5.4 Life-sustaining resources, patterns, processes, and community phenomena at structure
5.4.1 Context and a representative reef complex profile
5.4.2 Patterns of behavior, orientation, and other activity
5.4.3 Shelter
5.4.4 Feeding, growth, and condition
5.4.5 Aspects of species appearance, interactions, and community structure
5.4.5.1 Establishing, colonizing, settling, and recruiting biota to structure
5.5 Biomimicry and maturity at purpose-built reefs: two sides of the same coin?
5.6 Reef effects in the surrounding environment
5.7 Building blocks
References
Further reading
6 - Integration and roles of human-made structure in ocean resources management
6.1 Context: scope, issues, rationales, and approaches in ocean management
6.2 Marine resources, management, and the role and performance of human-made reefs
6.2.1 Building management practices to keep pace with science and the tools it provides
6.2.2 Representative management situations: using human-made structure as a tool
6.2.2.1 Fisheries
6.2.2.2 Biological diversity conservation
6.3 Building blocks
References
Further reading
7 - Secondary reefs: infrastructure as a growing component of ocean ecosystems
7.1 The worldwide expansion of marine infrastructure
7.2 Representative secondary structures and their reef effects
7.3 Trends for marine infrastructure design and management in ocean ecosystems
7.3.1 Putting into practice design and management of infrastructure
7.4 Building blocks
References
Further reading
8 - Human-made structure and seafloor habitat in a changing ocean
8.1 A changing planet
8.1.1 Earth's natural changes
8.1.2 Humans and global change
8.1.3 Climate change as a component of global change
8.2 The changing ocean, past, present, and future: effects on seafloor ecosystems
8.3 Stakeholders, managers, and scientists respond to changing oceans: concerns and emerging solutions
8.3.1 Recognition of global ocean change
8.3.2 Overview of ocean change responses and concepts
8.4 From concepts to tools and application: a role for human-made structure in changing oceans?
8.4.1 Focal points: human perceptions, understandings and behaviors, not to be overlooked
8.4.2 Focal points: coral reefs as a centerpiece of purpose-built structure deployment
8.4.3 Focal points: traditional purpose-built reef structure in expanded roles
8.4.4 Focal points: ecological engineering and reef effects of marine infrastructure
8.5 Building Blocks
References
Further reading
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
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