Status and Future Challenges for Non-conventional Energy Sources, Volume 1

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Ocean, Tidal and Wave Energy: Science and Challenges
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Ocean Energy
1.2.1 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Systems
1.2.1.1 Closed-Cycle OTEC
1.2.1.2 Open-Cycle OTEC
1.2.1.3 Hybrid OTEC Plants
1.2.2 Ocean Energy Potential
1.3 Tidal Energy
1.3.1 Tidal Energy Extraction
1.3.2 Turbines
1.3.2.1 Bulb Turbine
1.3.2.2 Edge Turbine
1.3.3 Energy Calculation
1.3.4 Tidal Power Utilization
1.4 Wave Energy
1.5 Socio-Environmental Impacts
1.5.1 Social Impacts
1.5.2 Environmental Impacts
1.6 Current Status and Future Challenges
1.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Nuclear Energy and Conventional Clean Fuel
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Economy of Nuclear Energy
2.2.1 Nuclear Fission
2.2.2 Fission-Based Nuclear Reactor
2.3 Nuclear Reactor Fuel
2.3.1 Nuclear Fusion
2.3.2 Fusion-Based Nuclear Reactors
2.4 Magnetic Confinement
2.5 Nuclear Waste Management
2.6 Present Scenario for Nuclear Energy and Environment
2.7 Nuclear Power Technology Advantage and Sustainable Development
2.8 Future Challenges
2.9 Summary and Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Solar Cells: Application and Challenges
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Solar Cell
3.3 Classification of Solar Cells
3.3.1 Monocrystalline Silicon Cell (Mono-Si)
3.3.2 Polycrystalline Silicon Cell (Poly-Si)
3.3.3 Thin-Film Cells
3.3.3.1 Amorphous Silicon (a-Si)
3.3.3.2 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
3.3.3.3 Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide (CIGS).
3.3.4 Organic Solar Cells
3.3.4.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSC)
3.3.4.2 Perovskite Solar Cells
3.4 Solar Cells Application
3.4.1 Solar Farms/Solar Parks
3.4.2 Remote Location
3.4.3 Standalone Devices
3.4.4 Portable Electronic Devices
3.4.5 Power in Space
3.4.6 Transportation
3.4.7 Defense and Military Uses
3.4.8 Building-Integrated Uses
3.4.9 Agriculture
3.5 Challenges and the Prospect
3.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Photovoltaic Modules: Battery Storage and Grid Technology
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Battery Storage Technology
4.2.1 Working
4.2.2 Battery Types
4.2.2.1 Lead-Acid Battery
4.2.2.2 Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-cd) Battery
4.2.2.3 Lithium-Ion (li-Ion) Battery
4.2.3 Present Status of Battery Technology
4.3 Sizing and Integration of Photovoltaic and Battery Systems in Distribution Grids
4.4 Grid Assembly Situations for Battery Storage Systems
4.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Geothermal energy: Exploration, Exploitation, and Production
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Geothermal Energy Resources
5.2.1 Formation of Geothermal Fields in the Earth
5.2.2 Types of Geothermal Resources
5.2.2.1 Shallow Reservoirs (Low Temperature)
5.2.2.2 Deep Reservoirs (High Temperature)
5.2.2.3 Deepest Reservoirs (Very High Temperature)
5.2.3 Importance of Geothermal Resources
5.2.3.1 Advantages of Geothermal Energy
5.2.3.2 Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy
5.3 Exploration Methodologies
5.3.1 Seismic Method
5.3.2 Well-Logging Method
5.3.3 Gravity Method
5.3.4 Magnetic Method
5.3.5 Electrical Method
5.3.6 Electromagnetic (EM) Method
5.3.6.1 Magnetotelluric Technique
5.4 Exploitation Methodologies
5.4.1 Exploitation Equipment
5.4.1.1 Production Pumps
5.4.1.2 Piping
5.4.1.3 Heat Exchangers
5.4.1.4 Heat Pumps
5.4.1.5 Reinjection Pumps
5.4.2 Types of Geothermal Power Plants
5.4.2.1 Dry Steam Plant
5.4.2.2 Flash Cycle Steam Plant
5.4.2.3 Binary Cycle Plants
5.5 Power Production
5.6 Other Uses of Geothermal Energy
5.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Application of High-Temperature Thermal Energy Storage Materials for Power Plants
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Concentrated Solar Power Plant (CSP)
6.2.1 Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC)
6.2.2 Solar Power Tower (SPT)
6.2.3 Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR)
6.2.4 Parabolic Dish System (PDS)
6.3 Heat Transfer Fluids
6.4 Thermal Energy Storage Tank
6.5 High-Temperature Thermal Energy Storage Material
6.5.1 Types of Energy Storage Materials
6.5.1.1 Sensible Heat Storage (SHS)
6.5.1.2 Latent Heat Storage
6.5.1.3 Thermochemical Storage
6.5.2 Characterization Technique of PCMs
6.6 Present Status
6.7 Challenges and Future Directions.
6.8 Summary and Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Hydrogen Fuel: Clean Energy Production Technologies
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Properties and Potential Uses of Hydrogen
7.3 Role of Hydrogen as Energy Reservoir
7.4 Why Still Fossil Fuels Are Difficult to Quit?
7.5 Hydrogen Production Technologies
7.5.1 Hydrogen Generation Using Fossil Fuels
7.5.1.1 Steam Reforming of Methane (SRM)
Advantages of SRM Process
Disadvantages of SRM Process
7.5.1.2 Dry (CO2) Reforming of CH4 (DRM)
Advantages of Dry (CO2) Reforming of CH4 (DRM)
Limitations of Dry Reforming of CH4 (DRM)
7.5.1.3 Partial Oxidation of CH4 (POX)
7.5.1.4 Autothermal Reforming
7.5.1.5 Coal Gasification
7.5.2 Renewable Sources for Hydrogen Production
7.5.2.1 Biomass Gasification
7.5.2.2 Aqueous Phase Reforming (APR)
7.5.2.3 Water Electrolysis
7.5.3 Hydrogen Storage and Distribution
7.5.4 Economics of Hydrogen Production
7.6 Summary and Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Natural Gas Hydrates: Energy Locked in Cages
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Facts and Properties of Natural Gas Hydrates
8.1.2 Structural Information on Natural Gas Hydrates
8.2 Natural Gas Production Methods from Gas Hydrate Reservoirs
8.2.1 Thermal Stimulation
8.2.2 Depressurization
8.2.3 Additive Injection
8.2.4 CO2 Injection
8.2.5 CO2 + N2 Injection
8.3 Comparison of Production Methods
8.4 Numerical Simulation of Gas Hydrate Reservoirs
8.5 Operational Geohazards Associated with Natural Gas Hydrates
8.6 Natural Geohazards Associated with Gas Hydrate Reservoirs
8.7 Global Climate and Natural Gas Hydrates
8.8 Future Prospects of Natural Gas Hydrates
8.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Gas Hydrates in Man-Made Environments: Applications, Economics, Challenges and Future Directions
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Hydrate-Based Gas Storage and Transportation
9.2.1 Process Economics for Hydrate-Based Gas Storage and Transportation
9.2.1.1 Comparison of LNG and NGH Formation Processes
9.2.1.2 Hydrogen Storage Cost Comparison
9.2.2 Future Energy Applications
9.3 Hydrate-Based Cold Energy Storage/Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Applications
9.3.1 Hydrate-Based Thermal Energy Storage Plants And their Process Economics
9.4 Hydrate-Based Gas Separation Processes
9.4.1 Post-Combustion Separation
9.4.2 Pre-Combustion Separation
9.4.3 Natural Gas Upgrading
9.5 Hydrates in Oil and Gas Industries: Flow Assurance
9.5.1 Challenges and Knowledge Gaps in Hydrate Management and Mitigation
References
Chapter 10: Hydrate-Based Desalination Technology: A Sustainable Approach
10.1 Introduction (Need for Desalination)
10.2 Concept of Hydrate-Based Desalination
10.3 Status of Hydrate-Based Desalination Technology
10.3.1 Guest Molecules (Hydrate Formers) Studied for Hydrate-Based Desalination Process
10.3.2 Process/Equipment Design for Hydrate-Based Desalination Processes
10.3.3 Pilot Plants to Demonstrate Hydrate-Based Desalination
10.4 Production Water Desalination
10.5 Cost Economics of Hydrate-Based Desalination Process
10.6 Challenges and the Way Forward for Hydrate-Based Desalination Technology
References
Chapter 11: Subsurface Decarbonization Options as CO2 Hydrates with Clean Methane Energy Recovery from Natural Gas Hydrate Res...
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Natural Gas Hydrates: A Potential Source of Energy
11.1.1.1 Origin
11.1.1.2 Worldwide Occurrence
11.1.1.3 Geologic Setting of Hydrate Reservoirs
11.1.1.4 Methane Hydrates in Oceanic and Permafrost Sediments: Structure, Cavity Occupancy and Stability in Porous Medium
11.2 Production from Natural Gas Hydrate Deposits
11.2.1 Method of Depressurization
11.2.2 Thermal Stimulation
11.2.3 Chemical Injection Method
11.2.4 Combination Methods
11.3 Subsurface CO2 Storage Options as Clathrate Hydrates
11.3.1 Oceanic Environment
11.3.2 Permafrost Environment
11.3.3 Methane Hydrate Reservoirs: CO2-CH4 Replacement for Clean Methane Energy Recovery
11.3.3.1 Schemes of Displacing the Methane (CH4) by Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in Hydrate Sediments
11.3.3.2 Laboratory Investigations: Macroscale (Bulk/Porous Media) and Microscale Experiments
11.4 Summary
References
Chapter 12: Combined Heating and Cooling System with Phase Change Material: A Novel Approach
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Thermal Energy Storage Methods
12.2.1 Sensible Heat Storage
12.2.2 Thermochemical Heat Storage
12.2.3 Latent Heat Storage
12.2.3.1 Phase Change Material (PCM)
Organic PCM
Inorganic PCM
Eutectic PCM
12.3 Selection Criteria of PCM
12.4 Future Trends of PCM
12.4.1 Encapsulation Techniques of PCM
12.4.1.1 Classification of Encapsulation
Macroencapsulation
Microencapsulation
Nanoencapsulation
12.4.2 Inclusion of Nanoparticles
12.5 Applications of PCM
12.6 Heat Exchangers
12.7 Solar Thermal Energy Storage in Buildings
12.8 Space Heating
12.8.1 Passive Solar Space Heating
12.8.1.1 Direct Gain
12.8.1.2 Indirect Gain
12.8.1.3 Isolated Gain
12.8.2 Active Heating
12.8.2.1 Liquid-Based System
12.8.2.2 Air-Based System
12.8.2.3 Under-Floor Heating
12.8.2.4 Domestic Hot Water
12.9 Solar Thermal Energy for Cooling
12.10 Sorption Technologies
12.10.1 Absorption Chiller
12.10.2 Adsorption Air Cooling System
12.10.3 Air Conditioning and Refrigeration System
12.10.3.1 Vapor Compression System
12.11 Combined Heating and Cooling System
12.12 Case Studies
12.12.1 Case Study 1
12.12.1.1 A Modern Combined Cooling, Heating and Power (CCHP) System at the School of Engineering, Urmia University (SEUU) at ...
12.12.2 Case Study 2
12.12.2.1 Two-Stage Rotary Desiccant Solar Evacuated Collector-Driven Cooling/Heating System at Himin Solar Company, China
12.12.3 Case Study 3
12.12.3.1 Absorption Chiller Constructed by Solar Parabolic Trough for the Co-Supply of District Heating and Cooling System at...
12.12.4 Case Study 4
12.12.4.1 Experimental Validation of a New Presizing Tool for Solar Heating and Cooling and Domestic Hot Water (DHW) System
12.12.5 Case Study 5
12.12.5.1 Combined Heating and Cooling Research Work at Solar Thermal Energy Laboratory, Department of Green Energy Technology...
12.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) of Kraft Lignin (KL) Recovered from Lignocellulosic Biomass: State of the Art
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Lignin-Structure, Processing, and Characterization
13.3 Kraft Lignin (KL)
13.4 Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) of Kraft Lignin (KL)-State of the Art
13.4.1 Effect of Physical and Operational Parameters
13.5 Summary and Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Catalytic Hydropyrolysis and Hydrodeoxygenation of Biomass and Model Compounds for Fuels and Chemicals
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Lignocellulosic Biomass
14.1.2 Biomass Conversion Techniques
14.1.2.1 Types of Pyrolysis
14.1.2.2 Influence of Feedstock Factors
14.1.3 Typical Composition of Bio-Oil
14.1.4 Properties of Bio-Oil
14.1.5 Applications of Bio-Oil
14.1.6 Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis (CFP)
14.1.6.1 Effect of Operating Conditions
Reactive Gas Ambience
Hydrogen Pressure and Pyrolysis Temperature
14.1.6.2 Effect of HDO Catalysts
Noble Metals
Non-noble Metal Catalysts
Zeolite Cracking
14.1.6.3 Mode of Upgradation: Ex-situ vs In-situ
14.1.7 Model Compounds
14.1.7.1 Furan Derivatives
14.1.7.2 Phenolic Compounds
Phenol
Cresol
Anisole
Guaiacol and Syringol
Vanillyl Alcohol
14.1.7.3 Linear Oxygenates
14.1.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References