Starchy Crops Morphology, Extraction, Properties and Applications

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Starchy Crops Morphology, Extraction, Properties and Applications
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
1 Introduction: importance of South American underground starchy crops
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Distribution of underground starchy crops of South American origin
1.3 International scientific literature perspective on underground starchy crops from South American origin
1.4 Variability in underground starchy crops of South American origin
1.4.1 Food energy production
1.4.2 Food and non-food uses
1.5 Final considerations
References
2 Origin, domestication, and evolution of underground starchy crops of South America
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Underground starchy crops
2.2.1 Arracacia xanthorrhiza
2.2.2 Goeppertia allouia
2.2.3 Canna edulis
2.2.4 Casimirella spp.
2.2.5 Dioscorea spp.
2.2.6 Ipomoea batatas
2.2.7 Manihot esculenta
2.2.8 Maranta arundinacea L.
2.2.9 Oxalis tuberosa
2.2.10 Pachyrrhizus spp.
2.2.11 Solanum tuberosum
2.2.12 Tropaeolum tuberosum
2.2.13 Xanthosoma sagittifolium
2.3 Final considerations
References
3 Global production and use of starch
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Global starch production
3.3 The use of starch in food industries
3.3.1 Different types of starch
3.3.2 Main uses
3.3.2.1 Bakery, pasta, and cereal Products
3.3.2.2 Beverages and soft drinks
3.3.2.3 Canned foods
3.3.2.4 Chocolates, sweets, candies, and caramels
3.3.2.5 Dairy foods
3.3.2.6 Fat replacers
3.3.2.7 Frozen products
3.3.2.8 Instant foods
3.3.2.9 Meat and derivatives
3.3.2.10 Resistant starches
3.3.2.11 Sauces, gravies, and dressings
3.3.2.12 Snacks
3.4 Non-food uses
3.4.1 Paper and packaging industries
3.4.1.1 The paper industry
3.4.1.2 Adhesives
3.4.1.3 Resins and plastics
3.4.2 Chemical industries
3.4.2.1 Pharmaceuticals—health
3.4.2.2 Hygiene
3.4.2.3 Detergents
3.4.2.4 Others
3.5 Final considerations
References
4 Morpho-anatomical aspects of starchy underground organs
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Why do plants store starch?
4.2 Special characteristics between cassava, arrowroot, and sweet potato
4.3 Cassava: morphological and anatomical aspects
4.4 Arrowroot: morphology and anatomy
4.5 Sweet potato: morphological and anatomical aspects
4.6 Final considerations
References
5 Biosynthesis of starch in tuberous crop plants
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Tuber starch is not strictly storage starch
5.1.2 Sucrose metabolism in the cytosol
5.1.3 Import of carbon into the amyloplast
5.2 Starch biosynthesis in underground starchy crops
5.2.1 Starch synthesis in dicotyledons compared to monocotyledons
5.2.2 ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase
5.2.3 Granule initiation
5.2.3.1 Starch synthase IV
5.2.3.2 Starch synthase V
5.2.4 Starch synthases required for amylose and amylopectin synthesis
5.2.4.1 Amylose synthesis
5.2.4.2 Granule bound starch synthases
5.2.4.2.1 Amylopectin Synthesis
5.2.5 Starch synthase I (SSI)
5.2.6 Starch synthase II
5.2.7 Starch synthase III
5.2.7.1 Starch branching enzymes
5.2.8 Starch debranching enzymes
5.2.8.1 Isoamylase-type debranching enzymes (ISAs)
5.2.8.2 Pullulanase-type debranching enzyme (PUL)
5.2.8.3 Glucan, water dikinase and phosphoglucan, water dikinase
5.2.9 Starch phosphorylase
5.2.10 Disproportionating enzyme
5.3 Starch granule-associated proteins and heteromeric protein complexes
5.4 Starch turnover in the tuber
5.5 Manipulation of starch biosynthesis to affect starch properties
5.5.1 Low amylose starches
5.5.2 High amylose starches
5.5.3 Altered amylopectin starches
5.5.4 Altered phosphate content starches
5.5.5 Granule size
5.5.6 Increased starch yield
5.6 Final considerations
References
6 International legislations for the use of modified starches in food and standards for native starches
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Functional classes of modified starches for food use according to main international and national legislations
6.2.1 Functional classes of modified starches in the United-States
6.2.2 Functional classes of modified starches in the European Union
6.2.3 Functional classes of modified starches in China
6.3 Standards for the use of modified starches in foods
6.3.1 Use of modified starches in dairy products
6.3.2 Use of modified starches in cereal and cereal products, and in bakery wares
6.3.3 Use of modified starches in fish and fish products, including mollusks, crustaceans, and echinoderms
6.3.4 Use of modified starches in meat and meat products and in eggs and egg products
6.3.5 Use of modified starches in fruits and vegetables products, salts, spices, soups, sauces, salads, protein products an...
6.3.6 Use of modified starches in confectionery, sweeteners and ready-to-eat savories
6.3.7 Use of modified starches in foodstuffs intended for particular nutritional uses
6.3.8 Other categories of food and modified starches not contemplated in Codex STAN 192–1995
6.4 Main commercial standards for native starches
6.4.1 Criteria based on pharmacopoeias
6.4.2 Cassava starch specifications according to exporting companies
6.5 Final considerations
Annex I
References
7 Laboratory methods for starch extraction
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Starch extraction laboratory processes for underground starchy crops
7.2.1 Conventional extraction process
7.2.2 Nonconventional extraction processes
7.2.2.1 Ultrasound-assisted extraction of starch
7.2.2.2 Supercritical fluid extraction
7.2.3 Efficiency of extraction processes
7.3 Methods for starch extraction
7.3.1 Traditional methods for starch extraction
7.3.1.1 Arracacia xanthorrhiza—Peruvian carrot
7.3.1.2 Canna edulis—Quensland arrowroot
7.3.1.3 Colocasia esculenta—Taro
7.3.1.4 Dioscorea sp—Yam
7.3.1.5 Goeppertia allouia—Caeté
7.3.1.6 Ipomoea batatas—sweet potato
7.3.1.7 Lepidium meyenii—Maca
7.3.1.8 Manihot esculenta—cassava
7.3.1.9 Maranta arundinacea—arrowroot
7.3.1.10 Oxalis tuberosa—Oca
7.3.1.11 Pachyrhizus ahipa—Yam bean
7.3.1.12 Solanum tuberosum—potato
7.3.1.13 Tropaeolum tuberosum—Mashua
7.3.1.14 Ullucus tuberosus—Ulluco
7.3.1.15 Xanthosoma sagittifolium—Cocoyam
7.3.2 Nonconventional methods for extraction of starch
7.3.2.1 Ultrasound-assisted extraction of starch
7.3.2.2 Starch as coproduct from supercritical extraction
7.3.3 Comparison of different methods
7.4 Final considerations
References
8 Characterization of underground starchy crops as raw materials: carbohydrates, starch, mucilage, and phenolic compounds
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Characterization of underground starchy crops as raw materials for starch production
8.2.1 Proximal composition of underground starchy crops
8.2.2 Starch extraction from underground starchy crops
8.2.3 Potential for industrial exploitation of underground starch crops
8.3 Mucilage and gums present in raw materials that store starch in underground organs
8.3.1 Mucilage of starchy underground organs
8.3.2 Problems with mucilage in underground starchy crops
8.3.3 Extraction of mucilage from starchy underground organs
8.4 Valorization of phenolic compounds present in underground starchy crops
8.4.1 Phenolic compounds
8.4.2 Phenolic compounds in underground starchy crops of South American origin
8.4.2.1 Phenolic compounds in underground starchy crops
8.4.3 Interference of phenolic compounds on starch color
8.5 Oxalates as minor components
8.6 Final considerations
References
9 Structure of starch, focusing on those from underground plant organs
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Evolution of knowledge on the structure of starch granules
9.3 Methods for characterizing starch molecular structure
9.4 Starch molecular structure
9.5 Chain length distribution of starches from underground plant organs and starch biosynthesis
9.6 Starch semi-crystalline structure
9.7 Starch granular structure
9.7.1 Starch morphological structure
9.7.2 Non-starchy minor components in starch granular structure
9.8 Final considerations
Dedication
References
10 Application properties of starches extracted from underground starchy crops of South American origin
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Characteristics of native starch from underground organs
10.3 Native starch compounds from underground organs
10.3.1 Amylose
10.3.2 Carboxyls and other radicals occurring in natural starch
10.3.3 Presence of phosphorus in natural starch
10.3.4 Size and shape of starch granules
10.3.4.1 Starch granule dimensions
10.4 Application properties of native starch and methods of analysis
10.4.1 Properties of native starches in cold water
10.4.1.1 Evaluation of the turbidity of granular starch extract
10.4.1.2 Identification of pregelatinized starch granules in commercial starch
10.4.1.3 Gelatinization of starch granules under cold water
10.4.2 Properties of native starches subjected to excess water and heating
10.4.2.1 Gelatinization of starch granules
10.4.2.2 How to evaluate gelatinization temperatures
10.4.3 Rheology and viscosity of starch paste
10.4.3.1 Non-rotating viscometers
10.4.3.2 Rotary viscometers
10.5 Starch gel and paste properties
10.5.1 Viscoelastic properties of gel and paste
10.5.1.1 Retrogradation
10.5.1.2 State of paste
10.5.1.3 Complexation
10.5.2 Evaluation of gel/paste properties
10.5.2.1 How to evaluate textural properties for industrial quality control
10.5.2.2 Measure of water binding capacity of granular starch
10.5.2.3 Measure of paste clarity and turbidity
10.5.2.4 Evaluation of gel performance under stress
10.5.2.5 Effect of mucilage on paste properties of starches
10.5.2.6 Effect of phenolic compounds on paste properties
10.6 Final considerations
References
11 Exploring the scientific interest for starch origin in South America from 2000 to 2020: Focus on non-destructive analyti...
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Materials and methods
11.3 Results and discussion
11.3.1 Country of publication
11.3.2 Core journals
11.3.3 Author productivity
11.3.4 Keywords
11.3.5 Analytics methods
11.3.5.1 Spectroscopy
11.3.5.2 Nuclear magnetic resonance
11.3.5.3 X-ray
11.3.6 Data treatment
11.3.6.1 Principal component analysis
11.3.6.2 Partial least square regression
11.4 Application of main analytical methods
11.5 Conclusion
References
12 Specific methods for the analysis of starch from underground starchy crops
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Methods for the analysis of raw materials, starches, and their derivatives
12.2.1 Sampling
12.2.2 Acidity/alkalinity
12.2.2.1 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)
12.2.2.2 Titratable acidity
12.2.2.3 Acid factor
12.2.3 Impurities
12.2.4 Sand and earth
12.3 Proximal analysis of raw materials, starch, and derived products
12.3.1 Moisture with a hot air circulation stove
12.3.2 Fat
12.3.3 Crude protein (calculated from crude nitrogen)
12.3.4 Ash and minerals
12.3.5 Fibers
12.3.5.1 Crude Fiber
12.3.5.2 Fiber in commercial starch
12.3.6 Carbohydrates
12.3.6.1 Evaluation of soluble carbohydrates as reducing sugars
12.3.6.2 Carbohydrates as total reducers
12.3.7 Methods for the determination of starch
12.3.7.1 Method for the determination of starch by specific rotation angle
12.3.7.2 Evaluation of starch content by Total Reducing Sugars
12.3.7.3 Methods under development
12.3.7.4 Starch evaluation in raw materials using a hydrostatic balance
12.3.8 Absolute density
12.3.9 Amylose content
12.3.10 Phosphorus content
12.3.11 Mineral content
12.4 Analysis of starch granules
12.4.1 Starch sample preparation for granule characterization
12.4.2 Starch granule counting
12.4.3 Granule Measurements
12.4.4 Particle size distribution analysis
12.4.5 Starch leakage
12.5 Starch color
12.5.1 Color Measurement
12.5.2 Color evaluation in cassava starch extraction industries
12.6 Complementary Analyses
12.7 Final considerations
References
13 Specific analyses to differentiate commercial modified starches
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Main types of commercial starch modifications
13.3 Analysis of starch granules under microscope
13.3.1 Microscope for quality control and process adjustment
13.3.2 Identification of pregelatinized starch granules
13.3.3 Identification of modified starches by microscopy and further analysis
13.3.3.1 Use of ionic and anionic dyes
13.3.3.2 Preparation of starch samples to evaluate the modification
13.3.4 Complementary analyses
13.3.4.1 Dichotomic key for identification of modified starches
13.4 Final considerations
References
14 Opportunities and challenges for underground starchy crops of South American origin
14.1 Introduction
14.2 The commodities market
14.3 Need for new types of starches
14.3.1 New trends of markets
14.3.2 Development of needed characteristics
14.4 Final considerations: opportunities for South American underground starch crops
References
15 Food uses and nutritional applications of resistant starches
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Starchy foods and caloric foods?
15.3 Concept and classification of resistant starches
15.3.1 Resistant starch type 1 (RS1)
15.3.2 Resistant starch type 2 (RS2)
15.3.3 Resistant starch type 3 (RS 3)
15.3.4 Resistant starch type 4 (RS 4)
15.3.5 Resistant starch type 5 (RS 5)
15.4 When starch can be considered resistant Starch or Dietary Fiber?
15.4.1 Physical methods
15.4.2 Methods of hydrolysis
15.4.3 Chemical methods
15.4.4 Genetic methods
15.5 How to determine resistant starches?
15.5.1 Direct dosage
15.5.2 Indirect dosage
15.5.2.1 In vitro approaches
15.5.2.2 In vivo approaches
15.6 Starch digestibility
15.6.1 Digestibility in vitro and in vivo
15.6.2 Classification of the degree of digestibility
15.6.3 Food processing vs resistant starch
15.7 Absorption of starch and sugar in the small intestine
15.8 Final considerations: future perspectives for resistant starches
References
16 Adulteration involving starch and its evaluation methods
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 World organizations and official documents in food quality control
16.1.2 Food fraud types and concept
16.2 Why starch is used in foodstuff fraud
16.3 Foodstuff adulteration with starch
16.4 Foodstuff adulteration with starch
16.4.1 Classical methods
16.4.2 Fourier transform near-infrared, fourier transform infrared, and Raman spectroscopy coupled with multivariate analysis
16.4.3 Thermoanalytical techniques
16.4.4 Electrochemical methods
16.4.5 Other analytical approaches
16.5 Final consideration and case study
References
Index
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