Special Educational Needs and Disability: The Basics

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Note
Preface
Acknowledgements
List of abbreviations
Chapter 1: Introduction to the field of special educational, or additional learning or support needs and disability
Introduction
Frames of reference, discourses, and labelling associated with special educational or additional learning or support needs and disability
Frames of reference
Discourses
Labelling
Stigma
Information conveyed by ‘SEND’ or ‘additional learning’ or ‘support needs’ labels
Connotations of the ‘need’ label
Addressing identified needs through the principle of equity
Differences in views about equitable provision
Inclusive or special schools?
Summary
Notes
Chapter 2: Special educational, or additional LEARNING OR support needs and disability: Evolution of the field
Introduction
Education provision from the mid-18th century
Special education provision: the early years
Schools for the blind
Schools for the deaf
Schools for the physically disabled
Provision for so-called ‘mentally defective’ children
Education for (almost) all
Links between special provision and the social, political, and ideological context of society
Developments in differentiated curricula for different learners
Categorisation in mainstream secondary education
Categorisation in special education
Education for all
Introduction of the concept of special educational needs
Summary
Notes
Chapter 3: Learning and behaviour needs, disabilities, and the law across the UK
Introduction
Human Rights legislation
Equality Act (2010)
Implications of 2010 Equality Act in educational contexts
Access arrangements and reasonable adjustments for external examinations
Legal interpretations of the concept of ‘needs’
‘Special educational needs’ in England and Northern Ireland
‘Additional learning needs’ in Wales
‘Additional support needs’ in Scotland
The law relating to special educational, additional learning, or support needs across the UK
‘Codes of Practice’ relating to needs in education in the UK
Law in England
Special Educational Needs and Disability Code of Practice: 0 to 25 Years (DfE/DoH, 2015) in England
Guidance in the Code of Practice in England
Criticisms of the system in England
Special educational needs and disability review (OFSTED, 2010)
House of Commons Select Committee report (Great Britain, Parliament, House of Commons, 2019)
Issues related to academisation of schools
Law in Wales
Guidance in the Additional Learning Needs Code for Wales (2021)
Criticisms of the system
Law in Northern Ireland
Guidance in the Code in Northern Ireland
Law in Scotland
Guidance in the Supporting Children’s Learning Code of Practice in Scotland
Statutory assessment of special educational and additional support needs and disability
Creating a positive learning environment for all
Summary
Notes
Chapter 4: Models of human attachment, learning, and behaviour
Introduction
Attachment theory
Learning and behaviour from a behaviourist view
Understanding principles of behaviourism
Applying behavioural principles to difficulties in behaviour and learning
Individual student behaviour
Group behaviour
Applications of a behaviourist approach to new learning
Task analysis and precision teaching
Cognitive–behavioural approaches
Constructivist approaches
Constructing understanding
Jean Piaget
Lev Vygotsky
Scaffolding learning
Jerome Bruner
Development of conceptual understandings and the role of language
Understanding difficulties in learning
An eco-systemic position
Summary
Notes
Chapter 5: Understanding and addressing needs in communication and interaction
Introduction
Communication and language needs
English as an additional language
Students with language impairment
Speech and language delay
Receptive and expressive language impairments
Addressing difficulties in receptive language
Expressive language
In-class activities to promote expressive language
Storytelling to develop oral skills
Strategies to support writing
Pragmatic language impairment (formerly ‘semantic pragmatic disorder’)
The example of ‘autism’
Approaches to addressing difficulties associated with autism
General approaches in the classroom and at home
Specialist approaches
The TEACCH programme
The use of ICT to support communication
Assistive devices
Software to address communication and interaction needs
Reading difficulties
Writing difficulties
Summary
Notes
Chapter 6: Understanding and addressing needs in cognition and learning
Introduction
Specific learning difficulties
Effects of SpLD across ages and sectors
The example of dyslexia
Association between dyslexia and intelligence
Effects on performance
Theories explaining dyslexia
Visual-based theories
Deficit in the magnocellular sub-system
Meares-Irlen syndrome: ‘visual stress’
Cerebellar deficit hypothesis
The ‘Balance Model’ of reading and dyslexia
Phonological deficit hypothesis
Addressing difficulties associated with dyslexia
Focusing on the information-processing system
Multi-sensory approaches to learning
Phonological awareness training
Acquiring reading and writing fluency
‘Metacognitive’ strategies
Coping strategies
Visual discrimination/spatial analysis
‘Reasonable adjustments’: examination concessions
Marking students’ work
Moderate learning difficulties
Meeting students’ learning difficulties
Applications of behaviourist learning theories
Bloom’s taxonomy
Use of Bloom’s hierarchy as a framework to differentiate teaching
Haring’s learning hierarchy
Constructivist approaches
Piaget’s constructivist theory of learning
Jerome Bruner’s ‘modes of representation’
Lev Vygotsky and social constructivist approaches
Addressing difficulties in comprehension
Memory problems
Addressing difficulties in the learning of mathematics
Relational signs: ‘plus’, ‘minus’, ‘equal(s)’
Common problems: the examples of place value and ‘zero’
Understanding number-ness
Time
‘Conditions’ associated with moderate to severe learning difficulties: the example of Down’s syndrome
Physical characteristics
Cognitive development
Children and young people with profound and multiple learning disabilities
‘Intensive Interaction’
‘Objects of reference’ and symbol systems
Summary
Notes
Chapter 7: Understanding and addressing difficulties in social, emotional, and mental health
Introduction
Frames of reference related to social, emotional, and mental health
Implications of attachment theory
Nurture groups
Links between emotional growth and learning
Supporting bereaved children
Support for bereaved children
Whole-school/college responses based on attachment theory
Approaches rooted in behaviourist psychology
Therapeutic approaches to addressing issues of mental health
Child and Mental Health Service (CAMHS)
Therapies
Play therapy
Talking therapies
‘Solution-focused brief therapy’
Altering attributions of failure
Addressing medical and biological explanations of behaviour
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Tourette syndrome
Pathological demand avoidance
Whole-school and classroom approaches to address social and emotional needs
PSHE in the curriculum
‘Circle Time’
‘Circle of Friends’
Transactional analysis
Restorative practice
Restorative practices in Scotland
Addressing bullying behaviour
Responses to bullying behaviour
Summary
Notes
Chapter 8: Understanding and addressing sensory and/or physical needs
Introduction
Hearing impairments
The ear: structure and function
Hearing process
Balance
Degrees of deafness
Types and causes of deafness
Including learners with hearing impairments in mainstream
Approaches to communication
Auditory-oral approaches
Sign bilingualism
Total communication
Assistive devices
Improvements to acoustic conditions in learning environments
Visual impairment
Including learners with a visual impairment in the curriculum
Safety issues
Curriculum access
Multi-sensory impairment
Multi-sensory teaching
Physical disabilities and needs
Muscular dystrophy
Cerebral palsy
Enabling physical access around the school
Encouraging physical access through the use of ICT
Responding to the needs of learners with severe difficulties in motor movement
Dyspraxia
Liaising with support staff
Summary
Notes
Chapter 9: Understanding and addressing a range of needs in literacy acquisition
Introduction
Attributes of supportive, responsive literacy teachers
Effects of public visibility of learners' literacy needs
Cultural responsiveness
Different conceptualisations of the technical process of literacy acquisition
Bottom-up, phonics-based approaches
Top-down, meaning-based approaches
‘Interactive’ approach
Addressing difficulties in reading
Teaching from a bottom-up perspective
Multi-sensory approaches
Word recognition
Vocabulary knowledge
Development of reading fluency and comprehension
Supported reading activities
Reciprocal teaching
Pause, prompt, praise
Paired reading
Use of audiobooks
Addressing difficulties in writing
Focusing on surface features and the mechanics of texts
Multi-sensory approaches to spelling acquisition
Reason and Boote's (1994) approach
Highlight the tricky bits in colour (or by some other means)
Bradley's (1981) approach
Cued spelling
Focusing on the process
Support through planning and production of text
Writing frames
Mind maps
Paired writing
‘Scaffolded story writing’
Summary
Notes
Chapter 10: Assessment and planning for learners with special educational, or additional learning or support needs
Introduction
The place of assessment in supporting learning and behaviour needs
Assessment in the early years
Eye tests
Tests of hearing
Assessment of physical impairments
Use of Statutory framework for the early years foundation stage
Identification through noticing
Formal, norm-referenced (standardised) tests
Standardisation process
Standard deviation
Validity and reliability
Usefulness of standardised scores
Percentile ranks
Confidence bands
Concept of ‘reading age’
Issues associated with norm-referencing
Formative assessment
Criterion-referencing
Assessment of particular areas of difficulty
Assessment of communication difficulties
Identifying dyslexic tendencies
Formal diagnostic criteria
Early years phonics screening check
Access arrangements and ‘reasonable adjustments’
Assessment of behaviour
Recording the specifics of behaviour
Time and interval sampling
Using checklists
Interpreting individual students’ behaviour
Problem-solving interventions to address challenging behaviour
Functional assessment of individual behaviour
Biological and medical assessments
Indicators of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Assessment of autism
Assessment of social and emotional health and well-being
Assessment of visual impairment
Auditory impairment
Assessment of hearing
Assessment of physical impairments
Eliciting learners’ views
Engaging with parents’ or carers’ perspectives
Planning to meet learners’ special or additional educational needs and disabilities
Making effective use of individual plans
‘Pupil passports’
Target setting
Statutory assessment of educational needs and disability across the UK
Education, Health and Care Plans in England
Individual development plans in Wales
Statementing in Northern Ireland
Coordinated support plans (Scotland)
Summary
Notes
Chapter 11: The wider workforce associated with special educational, or additional learning or support provision
Introduction
In-school staff
Role of the coordinator
In-class support arrangements
Effective use of support staff in classrooms
Collaboration between professionals
Statutory requirements
Range of services
Inter-agency collaboration and statutory assessment of special educational, and additional LEARNING OR support, needs
Challenges for multi-agency collaboration
Issues around culture and values
Professional boundaries
Status and power
Practical challenges
Issues identified during the piloting of EHC plans
Summary
Notes
References
Index