Spacecraft Operations

Foreword to the First Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
Contents
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Contributors
Abbreviations
Part I Overview Space Segment
1 Space Environment
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Launch Vehicle
1.2.1 Acoustic/Vibration Levels
1.2.2 Static Acceleration
1.2.3 Mechanical Shock
1.3 Spacecraft Operational Environment
1.3.1 Vacuum
1.3.2 Solar Radiation Flux
1.3.3 Particle Radiation
1.3.4 Radiation Belts
1.3.5 Atmosphere
1.3.6 Space Debris
1.3.7 Gravity and Magnetic Fields
References
2 Spacecraft Design
2.1 Definition of Systems Engineering
2.2 Objectives and Requirements
2.3 Design Drivers and Trade-Offs
2.4 Concurrent Engineering
References
3 Fundamentals of Space Communications
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Baseband
3.2.1 Source Coding
3.2.2 Channel Coding
3.2.3 Baseband Shaping
3.3 Modulation
3.4 Carrier
3.4.1 Elements of a Space Link
3.4.2 Link Budget Equation
Part II Mission Operations
4 Mission Operations Preparation
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Driving Factors
4.2.1 Requirements
4.2.2 Cost/Financing
4.2.3 Technology/Complexity
4.2.4 Schedule
4.2.5 Experience
4.2.6 Risk
4.3 Personnel, Roles and Responsibilities
4.3.1 Project Manager
4.3.2 Mission Director
4.3.3 Flight Director
4.3.4 System Engineer
4.3.5 Simulation Officer
4.3.6 Quality Assurance Engineer
4.3.7 Subsystem Engineer
4.3.8 Project Office/Project Officer
4.3.9 Controlling
4.3.10 Configuration Manager
4.3.11 Security Officer
4.4 Required Data, Products and Tools
4.4.1 Test Data and Data Generators
4.4.2 Spacecraft Simulator
4.4.3 Mission Information Base
4.4.4 M&C System Software
4.4.5 Ground and Flight Procedures for Nominal and Contingency Situations
4.4.6 Operation Support Tools
4.4.7 Project Documentation
4.5 Activities, Tasks, and Schedule
4.6 Review Process
4.7 Operational Validation
4.7.1 Necessity
4.7.2 Operational Validation Organization
4.7.3 Points to Evaluate During Simulations and Rehearsals
4.7.4 Operational Readiness
4.8 Conclusion
References
5 Mission Operations Execution
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Various Phases During Execution
5.2.1 General Description of the Execution Phase
5.2.2 Launch and Early Orbit Phase (LEOP)
5.2.3 Commissioning Phase
5.2.4 Routine Phase
5.2.5 End of Mission or Disposal Phase
5.3 Staffing of the Flight Control Team
5.3.1 Mission Operations Team Lead
5.3.2 Subsystem Specialists
5.3.3 Command Operator
5.3.4 Planner
5.3.5 Flight Dynamics
5.3.6 Ground Data Systems
5.3.7 Engineering Support Team
5.4 Interactions Within the Flight Control Team and Flight Procedures
5.4.1 Interactions Within the Flight Control Team
5.4.2 Flight Operations Procedures (FOP)
5.4.3 Anomalies and Recommendations
5.5 The Mission Type Defines the Operational Concept
5.5.1 Low Earth Orbit: GRACE
5.5.2 Geostationary Earth Orbit: EDRS
5.5.3 Deep Space Missions: Galileo
5.6 Summary
References
6 Flight Experience
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Mission Experience: Empirical Data
6.3 Failure Probability Versus Operational Experience
6.4 Interpretation of Telemetry
6.5 Contingency Handling
6.5.1 Mission Example TV-SAT 1
6.5.2 Mission Example: Sun-Acquisition Mode Anomaly
6.6 Conclusion
7 Flight Procedures
7.1 Introduction
7.2 General Information
7.2.1 Basics
7.2.2 Types of Flight Procedures
7.2.3 Mission Type Affects Flight Procedures Design
7.2.4 Flight Procedure Lifecycle
7.3 Flight Procedure Concepts and Approaches
7.3.1 Text-Based
7.3.2 Spreadsheet-Based
7.3.3 Script-Based
7.3.4 Commercial Products
7.3.5 On-Board Control Procedures
7.4 Development Guidelines and Rules
7.5 Summary
References
8 Human Factors in Spaceflight Operations
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Critical Dependability on Humans in Various Areas
8.3 Classical Fields of Crew Resource Management
8.3.1 Communications
8.3.2 Situational Awareness
8.3.3 Decision Making
8.3.4 Team Work and Leadership
8.4 Translation into Spaceflight Operations
8.4.1 Flight Control Team Structure
8.4.2 Operations Products
8.4.3 Real-Time Decision Making
8.4.4 Standards for Voice Communication
8.4.5 Monitoring System
8.4.6 Commanding and Command Error Data Base
8.4.7 Training and Simulations
8.5 Standardization
8.6 Conclusion
References
Part III Communication and Infrastructure
9 Design and Operation of Control Centers
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Infrastructure
9.2.1 Control Rooms
9.2.2 Public Space in the Control Center
9.2.3 Server Rooms and Computer Hardware
9.3 Control Center Network
9.3.1 Network Topologies
9.3.2 Network Technologies
9.4 Control Center Software
9.4.1 General
9.4.2 Space Link Extension Gateway System
9.4.3 File Distribution Subsystem
9.4.4 Spacecraft Monitoring and Control System
9.5 Outlook
10 Ground Station Network
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Station Selection
10.3 Station Communication
10.3.1 Communication Paths
10.3.2 Data Transfer Methods
10.3.3 GSN Examples
10.3.4 Cloud Based Services
10.4 LEOP and Routine Operations
10.4.1 GDS Engineering Team (NOPE)
10.4.2 Systems Team (Network and Systems Control)
10.4.3 Scheduling Office
10.4.4 General Tasks Throughout the Project
References
11 Ground Station Operation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The RF Subsystem
11.3 The Intermediate Frequency (IF) Baseband Subsystem
11.4 Supporting Devices
11.5 Telemetry, Tracking and Command Operations
11.5.1 Tracking the Spacecraft
11.5.2 Ranging
11.5.3 Monitoring and Control of Operations
11.6 Measurement Campaigns
11.6.1 RF Compatibility Test
11.6.2 LEOP
11.6.3 In-Orbit Test (IOT) System
11.7 Space Link Extension (SLE) Services
11.7.1 Online SLE Service
11.7.2 Offline SLE Service
11.8 Summary
References
12 Software and Systems
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Fundamentals
12.2.1 Telemetry Parameters
12.2.2 Telecommands
12.2.3 TM/TC Database
12.2.4 Monitoring and Control System (MCS)
12.3 Space-to-Ground Data Streams
12.3.1 Data Transport
12.3.2 Frame-Based Telemetry
12.3.3 Packet Data Structures
12.3.4 Packet Utilization Standard
12.3.5 TM/TC and Security Management
12.4 Monitoring and Control System (MCS) Software
12.4.1 TM/TC Processing
12.4.2 Display System
12.4.3 Offline Data
12.4.4 Automation of Mission Operations
12.5 Ops Support Tools
12.5.1 Procedure Tool Suite (ProToS)
12.5.2 Operations Support (OpsWeb)
12.5.3 Predictive Maintenance
12.6 SW Development and Maintenance
12.6.1 Multi-Mission Approach
12.6.2 Standards and Standardization
12.6.3 Software Procurement
12.6.4 Software Development
12.6.5 Maintenance
12.7 Conclusion
References
Part IV Flight Dynamic System
13 Orbital Dynamics
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Theoretical Aspects
13.2.1 Satellite Orbit
13.2.2 Satellite Velocity
13.2.3 Orbital Period
13.2.4 Orbit Perturbations
13.2.5 Maneuvers
13.3 Flight Dynamics Tasks
13.3.1 Mission Preparation
13.3.2 Mission Execution
13.3.3 Maneuver Planning
References
14 Attitude Dynamics
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Disturbances
14.2.1 Satellite Intrinsic
14.2.2 External Influences
14.3 Attitude Determination
14.3.1 Coarse Attitude
14.3.2 Precise Attitude
14.3.3 Ground-Based Attitude
14.4 Attitude Propagation
14.5 Attitude Control
14.6 Tasks of AOCS
14.6.1 Example 1
14.6.2 Example 2
References
Part V Mission Planning System
15 The Planning Problem
15.1 Introduction
15.2 General Overview of a Mission Planning System
15.3 Techniques for Timeline Generation
15.3.1 General Considerations
15.3.2 GSOC Modeling Language
15.3.3 Application Examples of the Modeling Language
15.3.4 Templates
15.3.5 Planning Algorithms
15.4 Summary
References
16 Mission Planning for Unmanned Systems
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Mission Planning System Example
16.3 Considerations on Designing a Mission Planning System
16.4 Mission Planning at Various Time Scales
16.5 Conclusions and Outlook
References
17 Mission Planning for Human Spaceflight Missions
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Basic Considerations
17.3 Planning Teams
17.4 Concept of Crew Flexibility
17.5 Planning Phases Overview
17.6 Planning Products and Processes
17.6.1 Strategic Planning
17.6.2 Tactical Planning
17.6.3 Pre-increment Planning
17.6.4 Increment Planning
17.6.5 Real-Time Planning
17.7 Planning Tools
17.8 Conclusion
References
Part VI Spacecraft Subsystems
18 Telemetry, Commanding and Ranging System
18.1 Definition of Subsystem
18.2 Signal Characteristics
18.2.1 Frequencies
18.2.2 Polarization
18.2.3 Side Bands and Side Lobes
18.3 Design
18.3.1 Subsystem Elements
18.3.2 Spacecraft Antenna Layout
18.3.3 Redundancies
18.4 Monitoring and Commanding
18.4.1 Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
18.4.2 Loop Stress
18.4.3 Lock Status
18.5 Operational Situations
18.5.1 Acquisition and Loss of Signal (AOS/LOS)
18.5.2 Ranging
18.5.3 Doppler and Coherency
18.5.4 Antenna/Transponder Selection
18.5.5 Polarization Prediction
18.5.6 Interferences with Another Spacecraft
18.6 Outlook to Future Developments
References
19 On-board Data Handling
19.1 Definition of Subsystem
19.2 Fundamentals
19.2.1 Subsystem Elements
19.2.2 Redundancy
19.2.3 Telemetry Parameters
19.2.4 Telecommands
19.2.5 Spacecraft Database
19.3 Managing Data Handling On-board
19.3.1 General
19.3.2 Safeguard Mechanisms
19.3.3 Maintenance of the On-board Software
19.3.4 Execution Management
19.3.5 Mass Memory Management
19.4 Summary and Outlook
References
20 Power and Thermal Operations
20.1 PTS (Power and Thermal System) Design Aspects
20.1.1 Power System
20.1.2 Thermal System
20.2 Operations
20.2.1 Preparation Phase
20.2.2 Launch and Early Orbit Phase (LEOP) Operations
20.2.3 Routine Phase
20.2.4 End of Life
20.3 Contingency Operations
References
21 Propulsion Operations
21.1 Principle of Propulsion
21.2 Configurations of Propulsion System
21.2.1 Layout of a Bi-propellant Propulsion System
21.2.2 Operational Configurations
21.2.3 Electric Propulsion
21.3 Real-Time Operations
21.3.1 Monitoring During Quiescent Periods
21.3.2 Orbit Maneuvers
21.3.3 Isolation of the Apogee Engine (Geostationary Earth Orbit—GEO)
21.3.4 Autonomous Operations
21.4 Offline Operations
21.4.1 Preparation and Calibration of Orbit Maneuvers
21.4.2 Calculation of the Propellant Mass
21.4.3 Calibration of the Center of Mass
21.4.4 Estimation of Lifetime
Reference
22 Attitude and Orbit Control Subsystem Operations
22.1 Introduction and Overview
22.2 Subsystem Description
22.2.1 Sensors
22.2.2 Actuators
22.2.3 On-board Control Unit
22.2.4 AOCS Device Combinations and Redundancy
22.3 AOCS-Related Ground Operations
22.3.1 Basic AOCS Ground Activities
22.3.2 LEOP and In-Orbit Tests
22.3.3 Contingency Operations
22.3.4 Support Tools for AOCS
22.4 Experience from Previous Missions
22.4.1 AOCS Degradation
22.4.2 Strange Wheel Behavior
22.4.3 Undocumented AOCS Function
22.5 Summary
References
23 Repeater Operations
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Repeater Subsystem
23.2.1 Functions of a Repeater Payload
23.2.2 Overview and Layout of a Repeater/Transponder
23.3 Repeater Operations
23.3.1 Launch and Early Orbit Phase (LEOP) Operations
23.3.2 IOT Operations
23.3.3 Routine Operations
23.3.4 Contingency Operations
23.4 Summary
References
Part VII Special Topics
24 Human Spaceflight Operations
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Manned and Unmanned Missions
24.3 From Satellite to Living Space
24.3.1 Advanced Satellite Subsystems
24.3.2 Environment Control and Life Support System (ECLSS)
24.3.3 Cargo
24.3.4 Extravehicular Activities (EVA)
24.4 Crew—Another Subsystem to Be Operated
24.4.1 Safety of the Crew
24.4.2 Crew Health
24.4.3 Crew Communication
24.5 Ground Support Operations
24.5.1 Mission Control Center (MCC)
24.5.2 Operations
24.6 The Future
References
25 Operations of On-Orbit Servicing Missions
25.1 Introduction
25.1.1 What is On-Orbit Servicing?
25.1.2 Motivations for OOS
25.1.3 Space Debris Mitigation
25.2 Examples of On-Orbit Servicing Missions
25.2.1 Manned OOS Missions
25.2.2 Inspection Missions
25.2.3 Life Extension Missions
25.2.4 OOS Technology Demonstrations
25.2.5 Space Debris Mitigation
25.3 Challenges in Operating OOS Missions
25.3.1 Flight Operation System
25.3.2 Ground Data System
25.3.3 Flight Dynamic System
25.4 Satellite Rendezvous
25.4.1 Orbit Mechanics in Local Orbital Frame (LOF)
25.4.2 Mission Phases from Launch to Docking
25.4.3 Rendezvous Sensors
25.5 Satellite Capture
25.5.1 Communication Concept
25.5.2 Interaction of the Manipulator with the Servicer Platform
25.5.3 Other Aspects
25.6 Verification and Test Facilities
25.6.1 Requirements for Test Facilities
25.6.2 European Proximity Operations Simulator
25.6.3 On-Orbit Servicing Simulator
25.6.4 End-to-End Simulation
25.7 Summary and Outlook
References
26 Interplanetary Operations
26.1 Types of Interplanetary Missions
26.1.1 Fly-By Missions
26.1.2 Orbiting Missions
26.1.3 Landing Missions
26.2 The Challenges of Interplanetary Flight
26.2.1 Trajectory Dynamics
26.2.2 Energy for the On-Board Systems
26.2.3 Communications with Earth
26.3 Mission Control Approach
26.3.1 Specifics of Interplanetary Flight Operations
26.3.2 Ground Contact Activities
26.3.3 Trajectory Determination
26.4 Special Operations
26.4.1 Planet Swing-By
26.4.2 Asteroid Fly-By
26.4.3 Planet Orbit Insertion
26.4.4 Landing Operations
26.5 Conclusions
References
27 Lander Operations
27.1 Overview
27.2 Lander Release
27.3 Various Landing Strategies
27.3.1 Entry, Descent and Landing Through an Atmosphere
27.3.2 Landing on Large Airless Bodies: The Moon
27.3.3 Landing on Asteroids and Comets
27.3.4 Penetrators
27.4 Surface Operations
27.4.1 Operations of Stationary Surface Elements
27.4.2 Rover Operations
27.5 Conclusions
References
Index