Spacecraft Lithium-Ion Battery Power Systems

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
About the Editor
About the Contributors
List of Reviewers
Foreword by Albert H. Zimmerman and Ralph E. White
Preface
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Purpose
1.2.1 Background
1.2.2 Knowledge Management
1.3 History of Spacecraft Batteries
1.3.1 The Early Years – 1957 to 1975
1.3.2 The Next Generation – 1975 to 2000
1.3.3 The Li-ion Revolution – 2000 to Present
1.4 State of Practice
1.4.1 Raw Materials Supply Chain
1.4.2 COTS and Custom Li-ion Cells
1.4.3 Hazard Safety and Controls
1.4.4 Acquisition Strategies
1.5 About the Book
1.5.1 Organization
1.5.2 Space Li-ion Cells and Batteries
1.5.3 Electrical Power System
1.5.4 On-Orbit LIB Experience
1.5.5 Safety and Reliability
1.5.6 Life Cycle Testing
1.5.7 Ground Processing and Mission Operations
1.6 Summary
References
Chapter 2 Space Lithium-Ion Cells
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Types of Space Battery Cells
2.1.2 Rechargeable Space Cells
2.1.3 Non-Rechargeable Space Cells
2.1.4 Specialty Reserve Space Cells
2.2 Definitions
2.2.1 Capacity
2.2.2 Energy
2.2.3 Depth-of-Discharge
2.3 Cell Components
2.3.1 Positive Electrode
2.3.2 Negative Electrode
2.3.3 Electrolytes
2.3.4 Separators
2.3.5 Safety Devices
2.4 Cell Geometry
2.4.1 Standardization
2.4.2 Cylindrical
2.4.3 Prismatic
2.4.4 Elliptical–Cylindrical
2.4.5 Pouch
2.5 Cell Requirements
2.5.1 Specification
2.5.2 Capacity and Energy
2.5.3 Operating Voltage
2.5.4 Mass and Volume
2.5.5 DC Resistance
2.5.6 Self-Discharge Rate
2.5.7 Environments
2.5.8 Lifetime
2.5.9 Cycle Life
2.5.10 Safety and Reliability
2.6 Cell Performance Characteristics
2.6.1 Charge and Discharge Voltage
2.6.2 Capacity
2.6.3 Energy
2.6.4 Internal Resistance
2.6.5 Depth of Discharge
2.6.6 Life Cycle
2.7 Cell Qualification Testing
2.7.1 Test Descriptions
2.8 Cell Screening and Acceptance Testing
2.8.1 Screening
2.8.2 Lot Definition
2.8.3 Acceptance Testing
2.9 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 3 Space Lithium-Ion Batteries
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Requirements
3.2.1 Battery Requirements Specification
3.2.2 Statement of Work
3.2.3 Voltage
3.2.4 Capacity
3.2.5 Mass and Volume
3.2.6 Cycle Life
3.2.7 Environments
3.3 Cell Selection and Matching
3.3.1 Selection Methodologies
3.3.2 Matching Process
3.4 Mission-Specific Characteristics
3.4.1 LIB Sizing
3.4.2 GEO Missions
3.4.3 LEO Missions
3.4.4 MEO and HEO Missions
3.4.5 Lagrange Orbit Missions
3.5 Interfaces
3.5.1 Electrical
3.5.2 Mechanical
3.5.3 Thermal
3.6 Battery Design
3.6.1 Electrical
3.6.2 Mechanical
3.6.3 Thermal
3.6.4 Materials, Parts, and Processes
3.6.5 Safety and Reliability
3.7 Battery Testing
3.7.1 Test Requirements and Planning
3.7.2 Test Articles and Events
3.7.3 Qualification Test Descriptions
3.7.4 Acceptance Test Descriptions
3.8 Supply Chain
3.8.1 Battery Parts and Materials
3.8.2 Space LIB Suppliers
3.9 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4 Spacecraft Electrical Power Systems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 EPS Functional Description
4.2.1 Power Generation
4.2.2 Energy Storage
4.2.3 Power Management and Distribution
4.2.4 Harness
4.3 EPS Requirements
4.3.1 Requirements Specification
4.3.2 Orbital Mission Profile
4.3.3 Power Capability
4.3.4 Mission Lifetime
4.4 EPS Architecture
4.4.1 Bus Voltage
4.4.2 Direct Energy Transfer
4.4.3 Peak-Power Tracker
4.4.4 Direct Energy Transfer and Peak-Power Tracker Trades
4.5 Battery Management Systems
4.5.1 Autonomy
4.5.2 Battery Charge Management
4.5.3 Battery Cell Voltage Balancing
4.5.4 EPS Telemetry
4.6 Dead Bus Events
4.6.1 Orbital Considerations
4.6.2 Survival Fundamentals
4.7 EPS Analysis
4.7.1 Energy Balance
4.7.2 Power Budget
4.8 EPS Testing
4.8.1 Assembly, Integration, and Test
4.8.2 Bus Integration
4.8.3 Functional Test
4.9 Summary
References
Chapter 5 Earth-Orbiting Satellite Batteries
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Earth Orbit Battery Requirements
5.3 NASA International Space Station – LEO
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Electrical Power System
5.3.3 Ni-H2 Battery Heritage
5.3.4 Transition to Lithium-Ion Battery Power Systems
5.4 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Spacecraft
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Solar Dynamics Observatory – GEO
5.4.3 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter – Lunar
5.4.4 Global Precipitation Measurement – LEO
5.5 Van Allen Probes – HEO
5.5.1 Mission Objectives
5.5.2 Electrical Power System
5.5.3 LIB Architecture
5.6 GOES Communication Satellites – GEO
5.6.1 Mission Objectives
5.6.2 Battery Heritage
5.6.3 LIB and Power System Architecture
5.7 James Webb Space Telescope – Earth–Sun Lagrange Point 2
5.7.1 Mission Objectives
5.7.2 Lagrange Orbit
5.7.3 Electrical Power System
5.7.4 LIB Architecture
5.8 CubeSats – LEO
5.8.1 Introduction
5.8.2 Electrical Power System and Battery Architecture
5.8.3 Advanced Hybrid EPS Systems
5.9 European Space Agency Spacecraft
5.9.1 Introduction
5.9.2 Sentinel-1 Mission Objectives
5.9.3 Galileo Mission Objectives – MEO
5.10
5.10.1 Introduction
5.10.2 EMU Long-Life Battery
5.10.3 Lithium-Ion Rechargeable EVA Battery Assembly
5.10.4 Lithium-Ion Pistol-Grip Tool Battery
5.10.5 Simplified Aid for EVA Rescue
5.11 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 6 Planetary Spacecraft Batteries
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Planetary Mission Battery Requirements
6.2.1 Service Life and Reliability
6.2.2 Radiation Tolerance
6.2.3 Extreme Temperature
6.2.4 Low Magnetic Signature
6.2.5 Mechanical Environments
6.2.6 Planetary Protection
6.3 Planetary and Space Exploration Missions
6.3.1 Earth Orbiters
6.3.2 Lunar Missions
6.3.3 Mars Missions
6.3.4 Missions to Jupiter
6.3.5 Missions to Comets and Asteroids
6.3.6 Missions to Deep Space and Outer Planets
6.4 Future Missions
6.4.1 The Planned NASA Europa Clipper Mission
6.4.2 ESA JUICE Mission
6.5 Mars Sample Return Missions
6.6 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 7 Space Battery Safety and Reliability
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Space Battery Safety
7.1.2 Industry Lessons Learned
7.2 Space LIB Safety Requirements
7.2.1 NASA JSC-20793
7.2.2 Range Safety
7.2.3 Design for Minimum Risk
7.3 Safety Hazards, Controls, and Testing
7.3.1 Electrical
7.3.2 Mechanical
7.3.3 Thermal
7.3.4 Chemical
7.3.5 Safety Testing
7.4 Thermal Runaway
7.4.1 Likelihood and Severity
7.4.2 Characterization
7.4.3 Testing
7.5 Principles of Safe-by-Design
7.5.1 Field Failures Due to ISCs
7.5.2 Cell Design
7.5.3 Cell Manufacturing and Quality Audits
7.5.4 Cell Testing and Operation
7.6 Passive Propagation Resistant LIB Design
7.6.1 PPR Design Guidelines
7.6.2 PPR Verification
7.6.3 Case Study – NASA US Astronaut Spacesuit LIB Redesign
7.7 Battery Reliability
7.7.1 Requirements
7.7.2 Battery Failure Rates
7.8 Summary
References
Chapter 8 Life-Cycle Testing and Analysis
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Test-Like-You-Fly
8.1.2 Design of Test
8.1.3 Test Article Selection
8.1.4 Personnel, Equipment, and Facilities
8.2 LCT Planning
8.2.1 Test Plan
8.2.2 Test Procedures
8.2.3 Test Readiness Review
8.2.4 Sample Size Statistics
8.3 Charge and Discharge Test Conditions
8.3.1 Charge and Discharge Rates
8.3.2 Capacity and DOD
8.3.3 Voltage Limits
8.3.4 Charge and Discharge Control
8.3.5 Parameter Margin
8.4 Test Configuration and Environments
8.4.1 Test Article Configuration
8.4.2 Test Environments
8.5 Test Equipment and Safety Hazards
8.5.1 Test Equipment Configuration
8.5.2 Test Safety Hazards
8.6 Real-Time Life-Cycle Testing
8.6.1 Test Article Selection
8.6.2 Test Execution and Monitoring
8.6.3 LCT End-of-Life Management
8.7 Calendar and Storage Life Testing
8.7.1 Calendar Life
8.7.2 Storage Life
8.7.3 Test Methodology
8.8 Accelerated Life-Cycle Testing
8.8.1 Accelerated Life Test Methodologies
8.8.2 Lessons Learned
8.9 Data Analysis
8.9.1 LCT Data Analysis
8.9.2 Trend Analysis and Reporting
8.10 Modeling and Simulation
8.10.1 Modeling and Simulation in Battery-Life Testing
8.10.2 Empirical Approaches
8.10.3 First Principles of Physics-Based Models
8.10.4 Systems Engineering Models
8.10.5 Models for Tracking Test Progress
8.10.6 Parameterization Approaches
8.10.7 Data Requirements
8.10.8 Lifetime and Performance Prediction
8.11 Summary
References
Chapter 9 Ground Processing and Mission Operations
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Satellite Systems Engineering
9.1.2 Ground and Space Satellite EPS Requirements
9.2 Ground Processing
9.2.1 Storage
9.2.2 Transportation and Handling
9.3 Launch Site Operations
9.3.1 Launch Site Processing
9.3.2 Pre-Launch Operations
9.3.3 Launch Operations
9.4 Mission Operations
9.4.1 GEO Transfer Orbit
9.4.2 GEO On-Station Operations
9.4.3 On-Orbit Maintenance Operations
9.4.4 Contingency Operations
9.4.5 End-of-Life Operations
9.5 End-of-Mission Operations
9.5.1 Satellite Disposal Operations
9.5.2 Passivation Requirements
9.5.3 Satellite EPS Passivation Operations
9.6 Summary
References
Appendix A Terms and Definitions
Acceptance Test
Battery
Battery Capacity
Battery Energy
Bus Voltage
Cell Bank
Cell Bypass Switch
Cell Formation
Cell Lot
Cell Lot Acceptance Test
Cell Screening
C-Rate
Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) Cells
COTS Cell Lot
Current Interrupt Device (CID)
Dead Bus
Dead Bus Recovery
Dead Bus Survival
Depth-of-Discharge (DOD)
Design Mission Life
Design Reference Case (DRC)
Destructive Physical Analysis (DPA)
Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS)
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
End-of-Mission (EOM)
Energy Balance
Energy Storage
External Short Circuit (ESC)
Fault Management
Foreign Object Debris (FOD)
Ground Support Equipment (GSE)
Hard Passivation
Internal Short Circuit (ISC)
Life Cycle Test (LCT)
Lithium-Ion Cell
Load
Load Margin
Lock-Up (or Latch-Up)
Module or Battery Module
Native Object Debris (NOD)
Normal Operation
Operating Voltage
Operational States
Overcharge
Overdischarge
Passivation
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)
Power Budget
Power Generation
Power Margin
Proto-qualification Test
Qualification Test
Rated (or Nameplate) Battery Capacity/Energy
Regulated Bus
Safe Mode
Service Life
Single Point Failure
Soft Passivation
Spacecraft
Specific Energy
Specific Power
State-of-Charge (SOC)
Thermal Runaway (TR)
Vent
Index
EULA