The rather specialized field of solar and infrared radiation measurements has become increasingly important due to the increased demands by the renewable energy and climate change research communities for data with higher accuracy and increased temporal and spatial resolutions. Recent advances in radiometry, measurement systems, and information dissemination also have increased the need for refreshing the literature available for this topic.
This book provides the reader with an up-to-date review of the important aspects of solar and infrared radiation measurements: radiometer design; equipment installation, operation, maintenance, and calibration; data quality assessment parameters; and the knowledge necessary to properly interpret and apply the measured data to a variety of topics. Each of the authors has more than 40 years of experience with this subject, primarily as the result of developing and operating multiple measurement stations, working with the industry to improve radiometry, and conducting various research projects.
The book's scope and subject matter have been designed to help a wide audience gain a general understanding of this subject and to serve as a technical reference. A student new to the field will benefit from the review of terminology and the historical perspective for radiometry before addressing more detailed topics in radiometry that we hope will be of interest to the more experienced reader.
Describes the strengths and weaknesses of irradiance instruments
Provides detailed information on how to assess uncertainty in measurements
Offers comprehensive background information needed to understand the use of solar instrumentation
Discusses design concepts for shadowband radiometers, sky imagers, and satellite-based estimates of solar irradiance at the Earth's surface
Includes chapter-end questions, references, and useful links
Author(s): Frank Vignola; Joseph Michalsky; Thomas Stoffel
Series: Energy and the Environment
Edition: 2
Publisher: CRC Press
Year: 2020
Language: English
Pages: xxii+494
Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Acknowledgments
Authors
Chapter 1: Measuring Solar and Infrared Radiation
Questions
References
Chapter 2: Definitions and Terminology
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Sun
2.3 Extraterrestrial Radiation
2.4 Solar Coordinates
2.5 Zenith, Azimuth, and Hour Angles
2.6 Solar, Universal, and Local Standard Time
2.7 Solar Position Calculation Example
2.8 Sunrise and Sunset Times
2.9 Global, Direct Normal, and Diffuse Irradiance
2.10 Solar Radiation on Tilted Surfaces
2.11 The Spectral Nature of Solar Radiation
2.12 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
2.12.1 Conduction
2.12.2 Convection
2.12.3 Radiative Heat Transfer
2.13 Photodiodes and Solar Cell Characteristics
2.14 Models
Questions
References
Chapter 3: Historic Milestones in Solar and Infrared Radiation Measurement
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Earliest Observations of the Sun and the Nature of Light
3.3 Nineteenth-Century Radiometers
3.3.1 Pouillet’s Pyrheliometer (1837)
3.3.2 Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder (1853, 1879)
3.3.3 Ångström Electrical Compensation Pyrheliometer (1893)
3.3.4 Callendar Pyranometer (1898)
3.3.5 Ångström and Tulipan Pyrgeometers (1899)
3.4 Operational Radiometers of the Twentieth Century
3.4.1 Abbot Silver-Disk Pyrheliometer (1906)
3.4.2 Smithsonian Water-Flow Pyrheliometer (1910)
3.4.3 Marvin Pyrheliometer (1910)
3.4.4 Ångström Pyranometer (1919)
3.4.5 Kipp & Zonen Solarimeter (1924)
3.4.6 Robitzsch Bimetallic Actinograph (1932)
3.4.7 Eppley 180° Pyrheliometer (1930)
3.4.8 Eppley Model PSP (1957)
3.4.9 Yanishevsky Pyranometer (1957)
3.4.10 Eppley Model NIP (1957)
3.4.11 Eppley Model Precision Infrared Radiometer (PIR) (1968)
3.4.12 Primary Absolute Cavity Radiometer (PACRAD) (1969)
3.4.13 Eppley Model 8-48 (1969)
3.4.14 LI-COR Model LI-200SA (1971)
3.4.15 Rotating Shadowband Radiometer (1975)
3.4.16 World Standard Group (1979)
3.5 Recent Advances in Solar Measurements
3.5.1 Automatic Hickey–Frieden Cavity Radiometer
3.5.2 Total Irradiance Monitor (TIM)
3.5.3 Cryogenic Solar Absolute Radiometer-Measure the Integral Transmittance (CSAR-MITRA)
3.6 Summary
Questions
References
Chapter 4: Direct Normal Irradiance
4.1 Overview of Direct Normal Irradiance
4.2 Pyrheliometer Geometry
4.3 Operational Thermopile Pyrheliometers
4.4 Absolute Cavity Radiometers
4.5 Uncertainty Analysis for Pyrheliometer Calibration
4.6 Uncertainty Analysis for Operational Thermopile Pyrheliometers
4.6.1 Window Transmittance, Receiver Absorptivity, and Temperature Sensitivity
4.6.2 Solar Zenith Angle Dependence
4.7 Uncertainty Analysis for Rotating Shadowband Radiometer Estimates of Direct Normal Irradiance
4.8 Direct Normal Irradiance Models
4.8.1 Ground-Based Modeling
4.8.2 Satellite Model Estimates
4.9 Historical and Current Surface-Measured Direct Normal Irradiance Data
4.10 Current Issues Regarding Direct Normal Irradiance Measurements
Questions
References
Chapter 5: Broadband Global Irradiance
5.1 Introduction to Global Horizontal Irradiance Measurements
5.2 Black-Disk Thermopile Pyranometers
5.2.1 Thermal Offsets
5.2.2 Nonlinearity
5.2.3 Spectral Response
5.2.4 Angle of Incidence Response
5.2.5 Response Degradation
5.2.6 Temperature Dependence
5.2.7 Ice and Snow on Dome—Ventilators
5.2.8 An Optical Anomaly
5.3 Black-and-White Pyranometers
5.3.1 Characteristics of Black-and-White Pyranometers
5.3.2 Lack of Thermal Offset
5.4 Photodiode-Based Pyranometers
5.4.1 Characterizing a Photodiode Pyranometer
5.4.2 Removing Biases in Photodiode Pyranometer Measurements
5.4.3 Reference Solar Cells
5.5 Calibration of Pyranometers
5.5.1 Shade–Unshade Calibration Method
5.5.2 Summation Method Calibration
5.6 Pyranometer Calibration Uncertainties
5.6.1 Uncertainty Analysis Applied to Pyranometer Calibration
5.6.2 An Example of the GUM Procedure Applied to the Calibration Uncertainties of a Pyranometer
5.6.3 Importance of Understanding Limitations of Percent Uncertainties
Questions
References
Useful Links
Chapter 6: Diffuse Irradiance
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Atmospheric Scattering Concepts
6.3 Measuring Diffuse Irradiance
6.3.1 Fixed Shadowband Measurements of Diffuse Irradiance
6.3.2 Calculated Diffuse Irradiance versus Shading Disk Diffuse
6.3.3 Rotating Shadowband Diffuse Measurements
6.4 Calibration of Diffuse Pyranometers
6.5 Value of Accurate Diffuse Measurements
Questions
References
Chapter 7: Solar Spectral Measurements
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Extraterrestrial Solar Spectrum
7.3 Atmospheric Interactions
7.3.1 Rayleigh Scattering
7.3.2 Aerosol Scattering and Absorption
7.3.3 Gas Absorption
7.3.4 Transmission of the Atmosphere
7.4 Broad Filter Radiometry
7.4.1 Photometry
7.4.2 Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR)
7.4.3 UVA and UVB
7.5 Narrow-Band Filter Radiometry
7.5.1 Aerosol Optical Depth
7.5.2 Water Vapor
7.5.3 Sun Radiometers
7.6 Spectrometry
7.6.1 Spectrometers
7.6.2 Spectral Models
7.6.3 Discrete Spectral Measurements and Modeling Combined
Questions
References
Chapter 8: Albedo
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Broadband Albedo
8.3 Spectral Albedo
8.4 Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function
8.5 Albedo Measurements
8.5.1 Broadband Albedo
8.5.2 Spectral Albedo
Questions
References
Chapter 9: Measuring Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Effect of Tilt on Single Black Detector Pyranometers
9.3 Effect of Tilt on Black-and-White Pyranometers
9.4 Effect of Tilt on Photodiode Pyranometers
9.5 Recommendations for Tilted Irradiance Measurements
9.6 Modeling Photovoltaic System Performance with Data from Photodiode Pyranometers
Questions
References
Chapter 10: Shadowband Radiometers
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Introduction to the Rotating Shadowband Radiometer
10.3 Rotating Shadowband Radiometer Using Silicon Detector
10.4 Multifilter Rotating Shadowband Radiometer
10.5 SPN1 Sunshine Pyranometer
Questions
References
Chapter 11: Infrared Measurements
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Pyrgeometers
11.3 Calibration
11.4 Improved Calibrations
11.5 Other Pyrgeometer Manufacturers
11.6 Operational Considerations
Questions
References
Chapter 12: Net Radiation Measurements
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Single-Sensor (All-Wave) Net Radiometers
12.3 Two-Sensor Net Radiometers
12.4 Four-Sensor Net Radiometers
12.5 Accuracy of Net Radiometers
12.6 A Better Net Radiation Standard
12.7 Net Radiometer Sources
Questions
References
Chapter 13: Radiometer Calibrations
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 What Is Calibration?
13.1.2 Why Is Calibration Needed?
13.1.3 How Frequently Should a Radiometer Be Calibrated?
13.2 Broadband Shortwave Radiometer Calibration
13.3 Broadband Longwave Radiometer Calibration
13.4 Spectral Calibrations
13.4.1 The Measurement Equation
13.4.2 Standard Lamps
13.4.3 Langley Plots
Questions
References
Chapter 14: Ancillary Measurements
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Ambient Temperature
14.2.1 Types of Temperature Sensors
14.2.2 Response Times
14.2.3 Measuring Temperature
14.3 Wind Speed and Wind Direction
14.3.1 Sensor Terminology
14.3.2 Anemometer
14.3.3 Cup Anemometers
14.3.4 Propeller Anemometers
14.3.5 Sonic Anemometers
14.3.6 Installing Anemometers
14.3.7 Wind Vanes
14.4 Relative Humidity
14.5 Atmospheric Water Vapor
14.5.1 Using GPS Satellites to Measure Precipitable Water Vapor
14.5.2 Installing a Global Positioning System Antenna
14.6 Pressure
14.6.1 Aneroid Displacement Transducers
14.6.2 Piezoresistive Barometers
14.6.3 Piezocapacitance Barometers
14.7 Sky-Imaging Systems
14.7.1 Site Surveys
14.7.2 Sky Conditions
14.8 Circumsolar Instruments
14.8.1 Sun and Aureole Measurement
14.8.2 Attempts to Automatically and Continuously Monitor the Circumsolar Irradiance
14.8.3 Use of the Sky Imager to Measure Circumsolar Irradiance
14.8.4 Use of the Rotating Shadowband Radiometer
14.9 Recommended Minimum Accuracies for Operational Instruments
Questions
References
Chapter 15: Solar Monitoring Station Best Practices
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Choosing a Site
15.3 Grounding and Shielding
15.4 Data Logger and Communications
15.5 Measurement Interval
15.6 Cleaning and Maintenance
15.7 Record Keeping
15.8 Importance of Reviewing Data
15.9 Quality Control of Data
15.10 Field Calibrations
15.11 Physical Layout of a Solar-Monitoring Station
Questions
References
Chapter 16: Solar Radiation Estimates Derived from Satellite Images and Auxiliary Measurements
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Geostationary Satellites
16.3 Deriving Irradiance from Satellites
16.3.1 Physical Models
16.3.2 Empirical Models
16.3.3 Global Irradiance
16.3.4 Pixel-to-Cloud Index Conversion
16.3.5 Cloud Index to Global Horizontal Irradiance Conversion
16.3.6 Direct Irradiance
16.3.7 Diffuse Irradiance
16.3.8 Tilted Irradiance
16.4 Status of Satellite Irradiance Models
16.5 Comments on Modeling and Measurement
Questions
References
Appendix A: Measurement Uncertainty Principles
Appendix B: Modeling Solar Radiation
Appendix C: Sunshine Duration
Appendix D: Sun Path Charts
Appendix E: Solar Position Algorithms
Appendix F: Useful Conversion Factors
Appendix G: Sources for Equipment
Appendix H: BORCAL Report
Appendix I: Failure Modes
Appendix J: How to Build a Pyranometer with a Solar Cell or Photodiode
Appendix K: Content Required for a Comprehensive Datafile
Appendix L: Solar Radiation Databases
Answers to Chapter Questions
Index
