Soils in the Hindu Kush Himalayas: Management for Agricultural Land Use

Foreword by I. P. Abrol
Foreword by K. M. Bujarbaruah
Foreword by Saroj Kumar Sanyal
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Authors
Abbreviations
1 Introduction
Abstract
1.1 General Description
1.2 Settlements in HKH
1.3 Hindu Kush Himalayan Region
1.3.1 Important Features of the HKH Region
1.3.2 Sub-divisions of Himalayas
1.4 Characteristics of Himalayan Sub-zones
1.4.1 Sub-Himalaya (Shiwaliks)
1.4.2 Lesser Himalayas
1.4.3 Higher Himalayas
1.4.4 Tibetan-Tethys
1.4.5 The Eastern Himalayas
1.4.6 Indian Himalayas
1.5 Ecosystem Services
1.5.1 Agriculture
1.5.2 Ice and Water
1.6 Water Availability
1.7 Economy
1.8 Vegetation Cover
1.9 Major Problems of Mountain Agriculture
1.10 The Outlook
1.11 Action Plan
References
2 Climate and Biodiversity
Abstract
2.1 General Description
2.2 Climate Extremes in the Hkh Region
2.2.1 Change in Climate
2.3 Relative Humidity and Sunshine Hours
2.4 Himalayan Glaciers
2.5 Climate Trends in Himalayas
2.5.1 Indus River Basin
2.5.2 Mekong and Salween River Basins
2.6 Afghanistan
2.7 Bangladesh
2.8 Bhutan
2.9 Tibetan Plateau (China)
2.10 India
2.10.1 Western-India Himalaya
2.10.2 Eastern India Himalaya
2.10.3 Weather and Agriculture in Indian Himalayas
2.11 Myanmar
2.12 Nepal
2.13 Pakistan
2.14 Biodiversity in Himalayas
2.14.1 Biodiversity Hotspots in the Himalayas
2.14.2 Taxonomic Diversity
2.14.3 Floral Diversity
2.14.4 Faunal Diversity
2.14.5 Agro-Biodiversity
2.15 Aerosols in Hindu Kush Himalayas
2.16 Ecosystem Restoration
2.16.1 Approaches and Principles of Restoration
2.16.2 Principles for the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration
References
3 Physiography and Resources
Abstract
3.1 General Description
3.2 Sources of River Water: Glacier, Rainfall, and Groundwater
3.3 Land Distribution, Use, and Suitability
3.4 Afghanistan
3.4.1 Human Resources
3.4.2 Livestock Resources
3.4.3 River Basin
3.5 Bangladesh
3.5.1 Water Resources
3.5.2 Sources of Water in Bangladesh
3.6 Bhutan
3.6.1 Agro-Ecological Zones of Bhutan
3.6.2 Population
3.6.3 Water Resources
3.6.4 Livestock Population
3.6.5 Land Use
3.7 Tibet (China)
3.7.1 Livestock
3.7.2 Traditional Pastoral Livestock System
3.7.3 Vegetation
3.7.4 Permafrost
3.8 India
3.8.1 Human Resources
3.8.2 Water Resources in India—The Regional Distribution
3.8.3 Eastern India Himalaya
3.8.4 The Middle Himalaya
3.8.5 Potentials of Natural Resources and Their Distribution Pattern
3.8.6 Forest Resources
3.8.7 Land Resource
3.8.8 Livestock Rearing
3.8.9 Land and Genetic Diversity
3.9 Myanmar
3.9.1 Demographic Features
3.9.2 Water Resources
3.9.3 Agricultural Resources
3.9.4 Livestock Sector
3.9.5 Forest Resources
3.10 Nepal
3.10.1 Demographic Features
3.10.2 Land Resources
3.10.3 Irrigation
3.10.4 Livestock
3.10.5 Water Resources
3.10.5.1 Status of Water Resources in Nepal
3.10.6 Snow and Glaciers
3.11 Pakistan
3.11.1 Human Resources
3.11.2 Land Resources and Uses
3.11.3 Water Resources and Use
3.11.4 Livestock Resources
References
4 Geology of Himalayan Soils
Abstract
4.1 General Description
4.2 Geology of Himalayas
4.3 Classification of the Himalayan Ranges
4.3.1 Geographical
4.3.2 Geological
4.3.3 Almora–Dudhatoli Crystalline
4.4 Metabasic Rocks
4.5 Quaternary Deposition
4.6 Afghanistan
4.6.1 Stratigraphy and Geologic History
4.6.2 Paleozoic (541–251 Million years Ago)
4.6.3 Mesozoic (251–66 Million years Ago)
4.6.4 Cenozoic (66 Million years Ago–Present)
4.7 Bangladesh
4.7.1 Tectonic Framework
4.7.2 Stable Precambrian Platform
4.7.3 Structural Framework
4.7.4 Formations of Different Age Groups
4.7.5 Geomorphology, Geology, and Tectonic Setting
4.7.6 Geological Mapping
4.8 Bhutan
4.9 Tibet (China)
4.9.1 Geological Setting
4.9.2 Himalayan–Tibetan Orogen
4.10 India
4.10.1 Geology of Eastern Indian Himalayas
4.10.2 Structure
4.10.3 Geology of Western Indian Himalayas
4.11 Myanmar
4.11.1 Tectonic Setting of Myanmar
4.11.2 Regional Geological Features of Myanmar
4.12 Nepal
4.12.1 Geological Divisions
4.13 Pakistan
4.13.1 Stratigraphy
4.13.2 Precambrian to Ordovician Rocks: Salkhala Formation
4.13.3 Hazara Formation
4.14 Lithospheric Deformations in HKH
4.14.1 Active Deformation in HKH Region
4.14.2 Slab Breakoff
References
5 Soil Microbes and Biofertilizers
Abstract
5.1 General Description
5.2 Microbial Communities in Soils
5.2.1 Bacteria
5.2.1.1 Nitrogen Fixation
5.2.1.2 Rhizobium
5.2.1.3 Bradyrhizobium
5.2.1.4 Azospirillum
5.2.1.5 Azotobacter
5.2.2 Fungi
5.2.3 Azolla
5.2.4 Cyanobacteria and Algae
5.2.5 Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms
5.2.6 Mycorrhiza
5.3 Actinomycetes
5.4 Trichoderma
5.5 Cellulolytic Microorganisms
5.6 Enzyme Activities
5.7 Soil Fauna
5.8 Microbiome of the Himalayan Ecosystem
5.9 Microorganisms in Himalayas
5.10 Bioresource Utilization
5.11 Success in Biofertilizer Promotion
5.12 Future Outlook
References
6 Soils of HKH Region
Abstract
6.1 General Description
6.2 Problem Soils
6.2.1 Soil Physical Problems
6.2.2 Chemical Problem Soils
6.2.3 Soil Fertility and Land Use in the World
6.2.4 Global Soils
6.3 Toxification of Acid Soils
6.4 Mountain Soils
6.5 Himalayan Soils
6.6 Soil Degradation and Vegetative Cover
6.7 Forest Cover in Himalayas
6.8 Threats to Mountain Soils
6.9 Afghanistan
6.9.1 The Central Highlands
6.9.2 The Southern Plateau
6.9.3 The Northern Plains
6.9.4 Properties of Soils Under Rice Crop
6.9.5 Soil Fertility in Afghanistan
6.9.6 Fertilizer Imports and Use at Initial Stages
6.9.7 Review of Fertilizer Trials on Wheat
6.9.8 Environmental Issues
6.10 Bangladesh
6.10.1 Soils
6.10.2 Fertility Status of Soil
6.10.3 Chittagong Hill Tracts
6.10.4 Fertility Status of Forested Soils
6.10.5 Development of Nutrient Deficiencies
6.11 Bhutan
6.11.1 Physiographic Zonation
6.11.2 Redistribution of Local Sediments and Their Influence on Soil Formation
6.11.3 Soil Survey and Classification
6.11.4 Soils as Indicators for Landscape History
6.11.5 Status of Soils
6.12 Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (China)
6.12.1 Horizontal Distribution of Soil
6.12.2 Vertical Distribution of Soil
6.12.3 Permafrost Distribution
6.12.4 Soil Elemental Content
6.12.5 Peatlands
6.12.6 Permafrost Thawing
6.12.7 Soil N Distribution in TP
6.12.8 Soil Carbon
6.12.9 Soil Acidification
6.12.10 The Causes of Grassland Degradation
6.12.11 Prevention of Grassland Degradation
6.12.12 Vegetation Carbon Pool
6.13 India
6.13.1 Geographic Setting of Indian Himalayan Region
6.13.2 Extent of Land Degradation in Indian Himalayan States
6.13.3 Soil Resources
6.13.3.1 Extent and Distribution of Acid Soils in Indian Himalayas
6.13.3.2 Problems Associated with Acid Soils in Indian Himalayas
6.13.4 Soils of Eastern Indian Himalayas
6.13.5 Soils of Western Indian Himalayas
6.13.6 Soils and Their Management in Western Indian Himalayan Region (WIHR)
6.13.7 Soil Fertility
6.13.8 Soil Productivity Constraints
6.13.9 Physiographic and Soil Resources
6.13.10 Fertility Status of Soils of Eastern Himalayas
6.13.11 Oak and Pine Forest Soil in the Western Indian Himalayas
6.13.12 Deficiency of Secondary and Micronutrient in Soils
6.13.13 Types of Wastelands in Himalayas
6.13.14 Hills and Mountain Ecosystem in India
6.13.15 Western Indian Himalayas (WIH)
6.13.16 Soils of Greater Himalayas
6.13.17 Soils of Indian Mid-Himalayas
6.13.18 Soils of Indian Lesser Himalayas
6.13.19 Soils of Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas)
6.13.20 Soil Health Management in Himalayan Region
6.13.21 Soil Erosion in Indian Himalayas
6.13.22 Micronutrient Status of Indian Himalayan Soils
6.13.23 Iron Toxicity
6.13.24 Fertility Status of Mid-Himalayan Region
6.13.25 Physico-Chemical Properties
6.13.26 Status of Macronutrients
6.13.27 Sediment Yield from Indian Himalayas
6.13.28 Soil Development in Indian Himalayas
6.13.29 Distribution of Different Soils in Eastern Indian Himalayas
6.13.30 Soil Physical Behavior Under Different Land Uses in Eastern Himalayas
6.13.31 Soil Physical Behavior Under Traditional Farming Systems
6.13.32 Modified Farming Systems
6.13.33 Soil Properties Under Agroforestry Systems
6.13.34 Land Degradation in Eastern Himalayas
6.13.35 Soil and Nutrient Transfer
6.13.36 Wastelands in Indian Himalayan States
6.13.37 Land Use Systems in Eastern Indian Himalayas
6.13.38 Extent of Soil Degradation in Eastern Indian Himalayan States
6.13.39 Soil Erosion and Water Resources
6.13.40 Problems of Flood
6.13.41 Efforts to Check Degradation
6.13.42 Policy to Improve Agricultural Lands
6.13.43 Soils and Soil Use Planning
6.13.44 Changes in Soil Properties Under Shifting Cultivation
6.13.45 Acidity and Plant Disease Relationship
6.14 Myanmar
6.14.1 Topography
6.14.2 Soils
6.14.3 Problem Soils
6.14.4 Soil Characteristics
6.14.5 Soil Classification
6.15 Nepal
6.15.1 Soil Classification of Nepal
6.15.2 Specific Soil Problems
6.15.3 Soils
6.15.4 The Nepal Himalayas and Land Use
6.15.5 Fertility Status of Soils in Nepal
6.15.6 Soil Fertility Variations
6.15.7 Influence of Cropping Systems on Soil Fertility
6.15.8 Changes in Fertility Status
6.15.9 Alternatives for Fertility Enhancement
6.15.10 Status of Natural Resource Management in Nepal
6.15.11 Soil Acidification and Its Impact on Nutrient Deficiency
6.15.12 Rating of pH in the Western Hills
6.15.13 Land Degradation
6.15.14 Soil Quality in Nepal
6.15.15 Biological Soil Quality
6.15.16 Soil Erosion in Nepalese Himalayas
6.16 Pakistan
6.16.1 The Soil Survey of Pakistan
6.16.2 Soils of Pakistan
6.16.3 Soil Inventory
6.16.4 Soil Potential
6.16.5 Soil Types
6.16.6 Fertility Status
6.16.7 Soil Erosion
6.16.8 Annual and Seasonal Distributions of Runoff
6.16.9 Soil Loss Through Erosion
6.16.10 Surface Runoff
6.16.11 Impacts of Land Uses on Runoff and Soil Degradation
6.16.12 Forest Cover Distribution and Change Patterns in Pakistan
6.17 Practices for Sustainable Soil Management and Utilization in HKH
6.17.1 Drivers of Sustainability
6.17.2 Sustainable Soil Management
6.17.3 Maintaining and Improving Soil Productivity
6.17.4 Policy Tools for Soil Protection
6.17.5 Conservation Farming
6.17.6 Terraces
6.17.7 Gully Prevention and Control
6.17.8 Green Manure Crops
6.17.9 Ecosystem Services
6.17.10 Water, Energy, and Climate
6.18 Change of Soil Under Human Activity and Climate Change
6.18.1 Models Used to Project Climate Change
6.18.2 Soils and Carbon Stocks
6.18.3 Influence of Climate Change on Soil Processes
6.18.4 Crop Production
6.19 Future Protocol of Soil Management in HKH
6.19.1 Ecosystem Management in the HKH
6.19.2 Protocols for Assessing Sustainable Soil Management in HKH
6.20 Change Velocity of Soil Under Different Land Use Scenarios
6.20.1 Drivers of Change in HKH
6.20.2 Issus and Future Line of Action
6.21 Potential Network of Soil Management in HKH
6.21.1 Recognition of Traditional Knowledge
6.21.2 Regional and Global Networking
6.21.3 Institutional Networking
6.21.4 Networking in HKH Region
6.21.5 Problems and Prospects for Regional Collaboration in HKH Region
6.21.6 Why Networking in Soil Management Could Be Uncertain in HKH Region
6.21.7 Way Forward
References
7 Land Use and Management
Abstract
7.1 General Description
7.2 Land Management
7.2.1 Management of Mountain Acid Soils
7.2.2 Crop Scheduling
7.2.3 Phosphorus Deficiency
7.2.4 Correcting Soil Acidity
7.2.5 Soil Fertility Declination in Middle Mountain
7.2.6 Threats to Sustainable Soil Management in Mountain Areas
7.2.7 Techniques for Managing Soil Fertility
7.2.8 Major Soil Constraints to Crop Production
7.2.9 Changing Tropical Soil Fertility Paradigms
7.3 Integrated Plant Nutrient Management System (IPNMS)
7.3.1 Integrated Plant Nutrient Management
7.3.2 Nutrient Use Efficiency in Acid Soils
7.3.3 Microbial Population and Activities in Soils
7.4 Soil Constraints Limiting Agricultural Productivity in Mountains
7.5 Best Soil Management Practices (BSMP)
7.6 Indigenous Knowledge and Local Wisdom
7.7 Mountain Agriculture
7.8 Pentagon of Livelihood Security in Mountain Ecosystem
7.9 Policy Issues in Mountain Agriculture
7.9.1 Food Security Challenges in HKH Countries
7.9.2 Change in Agricultural Land Use
7.9.3 The Potential of Himalayan Traditional Crops
7.10 Shifting Cultivation in HKH Region
7.10.1 Status and Extent
7.10.2 Social Security
7.10.3 Transformations in Shifting Cultivation
7.10.4 Soil Properties
7.10.5 Soil Carbon
7.11 Rangelands in HKH Region
7.11.1 Ecosystem Services
7.11.2 Carbon Stocks in Range Lands
7.12 Afghanistan
7.12.1 People and Farms
7.12.2 Land in Agriculture
7.12.3 Land Tenure and Ownership
7.12.4 Importance and Constraints in Agriculture
7.12.5 Food Insecurity and Poverty
7.12.6 Agriculture and Livestock
7.12.7 Irrigated Land
7.12.8 Crop Production from Irrigated Land
7.12.9 Livestock
7.12.10 Crops
7.12.11 Fertilizers
7.12.12 Threats to the Environment and Natural Resource Management
7.12.13 Range Lands of Afghanistan
7.12.14 Agriculture and Rural Development in Afghanistan
7.12.15 Irrigation in Afghanistan
7.12.16 Rainfed Agriculture
7.12.17 Recommendations for Food Security
7.13 Bangladesh
7.13.1 Food Security Situation
7.13.2 Sustainable Soil Fertility and Fertilizer Management Policies
7.13.3 Crop Production
7.13.4 Land Use in Chittagong Hill Tract (CHT)
7.13.5 Fertilizer Use in Agriculture in Bangladesh
7.13.6 Soil Fertility and Soil Health
7.13.7 Soil Fertility and Crop Response
7.13.8 Fertilizer Use
7.13.9 Other Nutrient Resources
7.13.10 Fertilizer Use in Bangladesh
7.13.11 Integrated Nutrient Management
7.13.12 Comparative Use of Fertilizer
7.13.13 Soil Organic Matter Management
7.13.14 National Priorities for Sustainable Soil Management
7.13.15 Land Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of Chittagong Hills Tract
7.13.16 Policies in CHT
7.13.17 Problem Soils of Bangladesh
7.13.18 Agriculture-Related Economic Activities
7.14 Bhutan
7.14.1 Land Use
7.14.2 Bhutan Agriculture
7.14.3 Land Categories
7.14.4 Soil Fertility Management (SFM) in Bhutan
7.14.5 Inorganic Fertilizer
7.14.6 Organic Programs
7.14.7 Nutrient Status of Soils of Bhutan
7.14.8 Threats in Land Management
7.14.9 Agriculture and Climate Change
7.14.10 Nutrient Flow from the Forest
7.14.11 Grass Fallow Systems
7.14.12 Agricultural Transformation in Bhutan
7.15 Tibet (China)
7.15.1 Land Use in China
7.15.2 Land Use in Tibet
7.15.3 Livestock
7.15.4 The Tibetan Steppe
7.15.5 Low Nutrient Use Efficiency
7.15.6 Increasing Cropping Intensity in Tibetan Plateau
7.15.7 Soil Acidification and Planting Patterns in TP
7.15.8 Insufficient Water Resource and Low Use Efficiency
7.15.9 Effect of Fertilizer and Lime Treatments on Soil Properties
7.15.10 Agricultural Systems of Xizang
7.16 INDIA
7.16.1 Land Resource in Indian Himalayas
7.16.2 Agriculture in Indian Himalayas
7.16.3 Management of Sustainability
7.16.4 Resources Degradation in Himalayas
7.16.5 Features of Indian Himalayas
7.16.6 Climate Change and Food Security in HKH
7.16.7 Integrated Nutrient Management for Crop Production
7.16.8 Gap Between Nutrient Demand and Supply
7.16.9 Crop Nutrient Balance
7.16.10 Causes of Low Productivity in Indian Himalayas
7.16.11 Performance of Agriculture in India
7.16.12 Eastern India Himalayan Region
7.16.13 Agricultural Land Use in EIHR
7.16.14 Agroforestry in EIHR
7.16.15 Spatial Distribution of Degraded and Wastelands
7.16.16 Use of Vegetative and Other Barriers
7.16.17 Indigenous Farming Systems of Eastern Himalayas
7.16.18 Agriculture in Indian Himalayan States
7.16.19 Horticulture in Indian Himalayas
7.16.20 Cropping Systems
7.16.21 Selection of Land Use System Hill Areas
7.16.22 Response of Crops to Nutrients
7.16.22.1 Rice
7.16.22.2 Maize
7.16.22.3 Pulses
7.16.22.4 Oilseeds
7.16.22.5 Vegetables
7.16.23 Loss of Nitrogen
7.16.24 Nitrate–N Content of the Soil After Experimentation
7.16.25 Nitrogen Management
7.16.26 Increasing Nitrogen-Use Efficiency
7.16.27 Environmental Implications of Fertilizer N Use
7.16.28 Plant Nutrient Requirements
7.16.29 Soil Conservation in Indian Himalayas
7.16.30 Rainwater Harvesting Structures and Land Use in Eastern Himalayas
7.16.31 Alternate Land Use Model for Mountains
7.16.32 Nutrient Cycling Management
7.16.33 Crop Diversification and Requirements
7.16.34 Management of Nutrient Deficiencies in Fruit Crops
7.16.35 Farm Power to Harness Crop Yield Potential in Mountains
7.16.36 Management of Soil Health in Hill Agro-Ecosystem
7.16.37 Multipurpose Trees (MPTs) and Soil Health
7.16.38 Role of Agroforestry in Soil Health Management
7.16.39 Agroforestry and Hill Ecosystem
7.16.40 Recycling of Nutrients
7.16.41 Ameliorating Agents and Soil Properties
7.16.42 Crop Nutrition
7.17 Myanmar
7.17.1 Ecosystems and Natural Resources of Myanmar
7.17.2 Agriculture and Crop Production
7.17.3 Food Security and Nutrition
7.17.4 Agriculture
7.17.5 Food Production
7.17.6 Irrigation
7.17.7 Crop Area and Production
7.17.8 Livestock, Fisheries, and Aquaculture
7.17.9 Water Resources and Irrigation
7.17.10 Improving Plant Nutrient Management
7.17.11 Nutrient Deficiency
7.17.12 Nutrient Budget and Uptake
7.17.13 Nutrient Supply and Crop Production in Myanmar
7.17.14 Drought-Prone Area in Myanmar
7.18 Nepal
7.18.1 Sustainable Soil Fertility Management in Nepal
7.18.2 Sustainable Land Use Management
7.18.3 Agriculture in Nepal
7.18.4 Mountain Farming Systems
7.18.5 Fertilizer and Soil Fertility Management And Food Production
7.18.6 Role of Fertilizer and Soil Fertility Management in Crop Production
7.18.7 Fertilizer and Soil Fertility Management Policies
7.18.8 Problem Soils
7.18.9 Soil Health Management
7.18.10 Soil and Nutrient Losses from the Hill Slopes
7.18.11 Biofertilizers, BNF, and Organic Manure
7.18.12 Fertilizers Recommendation
7.18.13 Micronutrient Problems in the Soil of Nepal
7.18.14 Impacts of Agricultural Intensification on the Environment
7.18.15 Future Line of Work
7.19 Pakistan
7.19.1 Natural Resources and Their Utilization
7.19.2 Land and Soil Resources
7.19.3 Water Resources
7.19.4 Natural Resource Utilization
7.19.5 Land and Agriculture Resources in NWFP, Pakistan
7.19.6 Land Use
7.19.7 Present Trends in Land Use
7.19.8 Livestock
7.19.9 Nutritional Security
7.19.10 Plant Nutrient Management
7.19.11 Fertilizer Consumption
7.19.12 Use of Fertilizers in Pakistan
7.19.13 Impacts of Balanced Fertilizer Use
7.19.14 Organic Manures
7.19.15 Limitations in the Adoption of IPNM
7.19.16 Soil–Plant Micronutrient Dynamics
7.19.17 Water Erosion
7.19.18 Magnitude of the Problem
7.19.19 Strategies for Sustainable Soil Fertility Management
7.19.20 Fertilizer Use and Production of Food Crops
7.19.21 Trend in Fertilizers Use in Major Crops
7.19.22 Efficiency of Fertilizer Use
7.19.23 Salinity and Sodicity
7.19.24 Food Security
7.19.25 Flash Flood Risk Management in the Hindu Kush Himalayas
7.19.26 Water–Energy–Food Security Nexus
7.19.27 Socio-Economic Constraints to Development of Highland Agriculture
7.20 Crop Production Approaches in the HKH Region
7.20.1 Land Use
7.20.2 Improving Food Security
7.20.3 The Gap Between Land Use Policy and Adoption
7.20.4 Challenges and Opportunities for Crop Production
7.20.5 Comparative Crop Production Approaches in HKH
7.20.6 Approaches to Produce Same Crop in Various HKH Countries
7.21 Conservation Agriculture
7.21.1 Key Principles of CA
7.21.2 Extent of CA in the World
7.21.3 Advantages of CA
7.21.4 Major Disadvantages of CA
7.21.5 Shifting Cultivation—CA by Default
7.21.6 Major Constraints in Adoption of CA in HKH Region
7.21.7 Conservation Agriculture and Carbon Sequestration
7.22 Forces of Change
7.22.1 Pedestals and Forces of Change
7.22.2 Environmental Forces
7.22.3 Change in Agriculture
7.22.4 Forest Pattern Changes
7.22.5 Variability in Climate Change
7.22.6 Environmental Effects
7.22.7 Socio-Cultural Drivers of Change
7.22.8 Major Issues of the HKH
7.23 The Way Forward
7.23.1 Problems and Issues of the Himalayan Region
7.23.2 The HKHs’ Challenges and Chances
7.23.3 Natural Resources
7.23.4 Towards a Self-Reliant HKH
7.23.5 Knowledge Gaps
7.23.6 Energy Needs
7.23.7 Ecosystem Services
7.23.8 Supportable Mountain Development (SMD)
7.23.9 Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK)
7.23.10 Agricultural Sustainability
7.23.11 Alternatives to Constrained Land Resources of Himalayas
7.23.12 Innovations for Resilience
7.23.13 Soil Management
7.23.14 Suitability of Soil
7.23.15 Capacity Building
References
Index