Soil Constraints and Productivity

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Foreword
Preface
Editors
Prologue
Chapter 1 Overview of Salinity in Arable Soils: Global Perspectives
1.1 Soil Salinity: A Global Threat to Food Security
1.2 Overview of Soil Salinity
1.2.1 Factors Influencing Salinity in Soil
1.2.1.1 Natural Factors
1.2.1.2 Anthropogenic Factors
1.3 Salinity in Arable Soils: Global Distribution
1.3.1 Asia
1.3.2 Africa
1.3.3 South America
1.3.4 North America
1.3.5 Europe
1.3.6 Australia
1.4 Effect of Salinity on Soil Health
1.4.1 Chemical Properties
1.4.2 Physical Properties
1.4.3 Biological Properties
1.5 Effect of Salinity on Plant Growth, Yield, and Food Production
1.5.1 Effect of Soil Salinity on Plant Growth
1.5.1.1 Primary Disorders
1.5.1.2 Secondary Disorders
1.5.2 Soil Salinity on Yield and Food Production
1.6 Environmental Issues of Soil Salinity
1.7 Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 2 Plant-Based Strategies for the Sustainable Management of Soil Contamination
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Plant-Based Remediation Strategies
2.2.1 Phytomining and Phytoextraction
2.2.2 Phytovolatilization
2.2.3 Phytotransformation
2.2.4 Rhizoremediation
2.2.5 Phytostabilization
2.3 Key Influencing Factors
2.3.1 Contaminant Bioavailability
2.3.2 Plant Characteristics
2.3.3 Planting Methods and Agronomic Practices
2.3.4 Additive Assistance
2.4 Phytomanagement: An Emerging Concept for the Sustainable Management of Contaminated Agricultural Soils
2.5 Final Considerations
References
Chapter 3 Green and Sustainable Remediation as an Option to Manage and Recover Soil Polluted by Anthropogenic Activities
3.1 Soil Contamination Emergency
3.2 General Consideration on Remediation Sustainability
3.3 Principal Methods of Soil Green Remediation
3.3.1 Chemical Remediation: Element Immobilization by Soil Amendments
3.3.1.1 Organic Amendments
3.3.1.2 Inorganic Amendments
3.3.2 Biological Remediation
3.3.2.1 Microbial-Based Bioremediation
3.3.2.2 Phytoremediation
3.3.3 Assisted Phytoremediation
3.4 Advantages and Limitations of Green Remediation
3.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4 Trace Elements and the Sustainability of Agricultural Systems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Relative Importance of Total and Bioavailable Trace Elements
4.3 Trace Element Deficiencies in Agriculture
4.4 The Unsustainable Accumulation of TEs in Agricultural Soils
4.5 Prolonging the Life of Agricultural Soils
4.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5 Chromium Contamination in Soil From Mining Activities: A Constraint for Crop Production and Potential Mitigation Strategies
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Negative Impacts of Cr(VI) Contamination in Agricultural Soils From Mining Activities
5.3 Potential Cr(VI) Mitigation Strategies
5.3.1 Physical Methods
5.3.1.1 Excavation and Off-Site Disposal
5.3.1.2 Soil Washing/Flushing
5.3.1.3 Solidification/Stabilization (Ex Situ and In Situ)
5.3.1.4 Vitrification
5.3.1.5 Froth Flotation
5.3.1.6 Jigs, Shaking Tables, and Spirals
5.3.2 Chemical Methods
5.3.3 Biological Methods
5.4 Challenges and Future Perspectives
5.5 A Case Study in India for Managing Soil Cr Contamination
5.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6 Heavy Metals in Agricultural Soils: From Bioavailability to Productivity
6.1 Current Situation of Heavy Metal (HM) Pollution in Agricultural Soils
6.2 HM Toxicity to Soil Microorganisms
6.2.1 Microbial Community Structure and Diversity
6.2.2 Microbial Physiological Processes
6.2.3 Enzymes and Gene Regulation of Soil Microorganisms
6.2.3.1 Soil Enzymes
6.2.3.2 Gene Regulation
6.2.4 Microorganisms as HM Pollution Indicators
6.2.5 Soil Animals
6.3 HM Toxicity to Plants
6.3.1 Availability of HMs to Plants
6.3.2 Uptake of HMs
6.3.3 Plant Growth
6.3.3.1 Germination
6.3.3.2 Stem
6.3.3.3 Root
6.3.4 Physiology of Whole Plants
6.3.4.1 Photosynthetic Activities of Plants
6.3.4.2 The Production of Reactive Oxygen Species
6.3.4.3 Hormonal Balance
6.3.4.4 Proteins
6.4 Influences of HMs on Crop Yield and Quality
6.4.1 Crop Quality
6.4.1.1 Nutrient Uptake
6.4.1.2 Shoot and Leaf
6.4.1.3 Seed
6.4.2 Productivity
6.5 Remediation Techniques for Heavy Metal-Contaminated Agricultural Soils
6.5.1 Physical Remediation
6.5.1.1 Soil Replacement
6.5.1.2 Thermal Treatment
6.5.2 Chemical Remediation
6.5.2.1 Soil Stabilization
6.5.2.2 Soil Washing
6.5.2.3 Electrokinetic Remediation
6.5.2.4 Chemical Oxidation and Reduction
6.5.3 Bioremediation
6.5.3.1 Microbial Remediation
6.5.3.2 Phytoremediation
6.5.3.3 Soil Animal (Earthworm) Remediation
6.5.4 Combined or Synergistic Remediation Techniques
6.5.4.1 Physical-Chemical Remediation
6.5.4.2 Microorganism-Animal-Plant Remediation
6.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 7 Silent Alienation of Soils Through Microplastic in the Anthropocene – A Constraint for Soil Productivity?
Abbreviations
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Plastic – The Nemesis of the Anthropocene
7.3 Occurrence of Microplastic in the Soil Environment
7.4 Effects of Microplastic on Soil Physical Properties
7.5 Effects of Microplastic on Soil Fauna
7.6 Effects of Microplastic on Soil Microorganisms
7.7 Silent Alienation of Soils Through Microplastic Accumulation
7.8 Effect of Microplastic on Crop Performance
7.9 Future Perspectives for Mitigating Effects of Microplastic on Soils
References
Chapter 8 Elemental Loads with Phosphate Fertilizers: A Constraint for Soil Productivity?
Abbreviations
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Heavy Metals in Rock Phosphates and P Fertilizers
8.3 Elemental Signatures for Identifying Origins of Phosphate Rocks and Fertilizers
8.4 Environmental Loads of Heavy Metals Added to Agricultural Soils with P Fertilization
8.5 Mitigation of Chemical Soil Constraints Caused by Heavy Metal Contamination with P Fertilization – Fertilizer Regimes
8.6 Mitigation of Chemical Soil Constraints Caused by Heavy Metal Contamination with P Fertilization – Valorization of Fertilizer Manufacturing
8.7 Mitigation of Chemical Soil Constraints Caused by Heavy Metal Contamination with P Fertilization – Legal Measures for Fertilizers
References
Chapter 9 Soil Crust: Formation, Influence on Soil Productivity, and Management
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Kinds of Soil Crusts and Their Formation
9.2.1 Kinds of Soil Crusts
9.2.2 Formation of Soil Crusts
9.3 Factors Affecting Surface Crust Formation
9.4 Influence of Soil Crusts on Soil Productivity
9.5 Management of Soil Crusts
9.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 10 Hydrochar Production for Soil Environmental Improvement
10.1 Production of Hydrochar
10.1.1 Hydrothermal Carbonization Process
10.1.2 Feedstock for Hydrothermal Carbonization
10.1.3 Effect of Process Parameters
10.1.3.1 Temperature
10.1.3.2 Residence Time
10.1.3.3 pH
10.1.3.4 Substrate Concentration
10.2 Characterization of Hydrochar
10.2.1 Solid Yield
10.2.2 The Coalification Degree
10.2.3 Elemental Composition
10.2.4 Surface Functional Groups
10.3 Application of Hydrochar for Soil Improvement
10.3.1 Soil Pollution Remediation
10.3.2 Carbon Sequestration
10.3.3 Soil Amendment
10.4 Conclusion and Agricultural Environment Implications
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 11 Using Biochar-Based Nitrogen Fertilizers to Enhance the Productivity of Low Fertility Soils
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Preparation Materials and Methods of BBNFs
11.2.1 The Blending of Biochar with Fertilizers
11.2.2 Coating of Fertilizers with Biochar
11.3 Properties of BBNFs
11.3.1 Development of Sorptive Properties of BBNFs
11.3.2 Influencing Factors for N Release
11.3.3 Slow Release of N from BBNFs
11.3.3.1 Kinetic Models of N Release and Slow-Release Mechanisms of BBNFs
11.4 Impact of BBNFs on N Conversion Process for Agriculture Soil
11.4.1 Leaching Loss
11.4.2 NH[sub(3)] Volatilization
11.5 The Impact of BBNFs on Agricultural Soils
11.5.1 Physical Properties
11.5.2 Chemical Properties
11.5.3 Microbial Influence
11.6 Promoting Plant Growth and Crop Yield by BBNFs
11.6.1 BBNFs for NUE Improvement
11.6.2 BBNFs Concerning Crop Yield
11.7 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
Chapter 12 Biochar for Sustainable Soils, Agriculture, and Climate Change Mitigation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Production and Characteristics of Biochar
12.3 Impact of Biochar on Physical Characteristics of Soil
12.3.1 Soil Porosity
12.3.2 Soil Aggregate Formation
12.3.3 Impact of Biochar on Chemical Properties of Soil
12.3.3.1 Soil pH
12.3.3.2 Cation Exchange Capacity of Soil
12.3.4 Impact of Biochar on Biological Attributes of Soil
12.4 Biochar as a Source of Nutrients
12.4.1 Biochar's Role as Fertilizer
12.4.2 Availability of Nutrients and Uptake by Plants in Biochar-Applied Soils
12.4.3 Factors Affecting Nutrient Content and Availability in Biochar
12.5 Effect of Biochar on Crop Yield
12.6 Biochar Role in Climate Change Mitigation
12.7 Greenhouse Gas Emission from Biochar-Treated Soil vs. Crop-Residue Treated Soil
12.7.1 Methane (CH[sub(4)])
12.7.2 Carbon Dioxide (CO[sub(2)])
12.7.3 Nitrous Oxide (N[sub(2)]O)
12.8 Biochar Role in Soil Carbon Storage
12.9 Conclusions and Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 13 Nutrient Depletion in Salt-Affected Soils and Yield Reduction
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Basic Concept of Nutrient Depletion
13.2.1 Salt-Affected Soils
13.2.2 Saline Soils
13.2.3 Saline-Sodic and Sodic Soils
13.2.4 Nutrient Depletion in Salt-Affected Soils and Its Impacts on Crop Yield
13.3 Macronutrients
13.3.1 Nitrogen
13.3.2 Phosphorus
13.3.3 Potassium
13.3.4 Calcium and Magnesium
13.3.5 Sulfur
13.4 Micronutrients
13.4.1 Zinc
13.4.2 Boron
13.4.3 Iron
13.4.4 Manganese
13.4.5 Copper
13.4.6 Molybdenum
13.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 14 Use of Biochar for the Amelioration of Problem Soils
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Production of Biochar and Its Chemical Structure
14.1.2 Biochar for Improvement of Soil Physical Properties
14.1.3 Biochar for Improvement of Soil Chemical Properties
14.1.4 Biochar for Improvement of Soil Biological Properties
14.1.5 Biochar and Heavy Metal Contamination
14.1.6 Remediation of Soils Polluted by Organic Pollutants
14.2 Conclusions
References
Chapter 15 Use of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Remediating Soils Constrained by Metal(Loid) Contamination
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Soils Polluted with Metal(Loid)s and Their Global Distribution
15.3 Phytoremediation of Metal(Loid) Polluted Soils
15.4 Microbial-Assisted Phytoremediation of Metal(Loid) Polluted Soils
15.5 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Metal(loid)-Polluted Soils
15.5.1 Adaptive Strategies Developed by Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Plants to Alleviate Metal(Loid) Stress
15.6 Role of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Promoting Phytoremediation of Metal(Loid) Polluted Soils
15.6.1 Role Developed by AMF in Enhancing Metal(Loid) Immobilization on Soils
15.6.1.1 Immobilization of Metal(Loid)s by Fungal Structures
15.6.1.2 Intracellular Chelating Agents
15.6.2 Role Developed by AMF in Promoting Metal(Loid) Translocation to Plants
15.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 16 Endophytic Microbes for Sustainable Crop Production and Soil Health Maintenance in Toxic Trace Element-Contaminated Soil
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Source and Impact of TTE on Soil Health
16.2.1 Sources of TTE
16.2.2 Impacts of TTE on Soil Health
16.3 Nutrient Cycling and Crop Production in TTE-Contaminated Soil
16.4 Effect of Endophytes in the Maintenance Soil Health under TTE Contamination
16.5 Endophytes to Alleviate Abiotic Stress of Plants
16.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17 Allelopathy: A Natural Factor Constraining or Supporting the Productivity of Soils?
17.1 Allelopathy: A General Introduction
17.2 Chemistry of Allelopathic Interactions
17.3 The Role of Allelopathy in Natural Ecosystems
17.4 Allelopathy in Agrocenoses
17.5 Can Allelopathy Be a Means to Alleviate Constraints of Soil Productivity?
17.6 Conclusions
17.6.1 Is Allelopathy a Natural Factor Constraining or Supporting the Productivity of Soils?
References
Chapter 18 Managing Multiple Constraints to Crop Production in Dispersive Soils
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Fundamental Factors Involved in Clay Dispersion
18.3 Ionic Charge of Soil Particles and Clay Dispersivity
18.3.1 Constraints to Crop Production in Dispersive Soils
18.3.2 Constraints Due to Solid Phase Chemistry
18.3.3 Constraints Due to Soil Solution Chemistry
18.3.4 Principles Involved in the Management of Dispersive Soils
18.4 Mechanisms That Drive the Amelioration Process in the Subsoil
18.4.1 Use of Gypsum to Ameliorate Topsoil Dispersion
18.4.2 Use of Gypsum to Ameliorate Subsoil Dispersion
18.4.3 Use of Organic Amendments
18.4.4 Plant-Based Solutions for Dispersive Soils
18.4.4.1 The Use of Primer Plants to Ameliorate Poorly Structured Subsoils
18.4.4.2 Phytoremediation of Dispersive Soils
18.5 Breeding Approaches
18.5.1 Improved Tolerance to Sodicity
18.5.2 Surface Crusting and Waterlogging
18.5.3 High Soil Strength
18.5.4 Drought Tolerance
18.5.5 Tolerance to Nutrient Imbalances
18.5.6 Salinity Tolerance
18.5.7 Tolerance to Ion Toxicities
18.5.8 Tolerance to High pH
References
Chapter 19 Sandy Soil Constraints: Organic and Clay Amendments to Improve the Productivity of Sandy Soils
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Characterizing Sandy Soils
19.3 Production Influences
19.3.1 Reactive Surface Area
19.3.2 Water-Holding Capacity and Plant-Available Water
19.3.3 Soil Structure and Soil Strength
19.3.4 Soil pH
19.3.5 Nutrient-Holding Capacity
19.3.6 Water Repellence
19.3.7 Organic Carbon
19.3.8 Wind Erosion
19.4 Amendments for Sandy Soils
19.4.1 Addition of Organic Amendments
19.4.2 Addition of Clay Amendments
19.4.3 Mechanisms to Improve Yield following Clay Addition
19.5 Novel Products
19.5.1 Industrial Waste Products
19.5.2 Minerals
19.5.3 Organic Products
19.5.4 Super Absorbent Polymers
19.6 Ideal Amended Sandy Soil
Ackowledgments
References
Chapter 20 Subsoil Acidity and Aluminum Toxicity: Measurement, Formation, and Management Strategies in Conservation Farming Systems
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Soil Acidification
20.3 Measurement
20.4 Lime and Gypsum Sources
20.5 Management Strategies
20.5.1 Plant Al[sup(3+)] Tolerance
20.5.2 Farming System
20.5.3 Strategic Tillage
20.5.4 Lime
20.5.5 Gypsum
20.5.6 Lime and Gypsum
20.6 Alkalinity Movement
20.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 21 Management of Acid and Acid Sulfate Soils
List of Abbreviations
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Formation of Acid and Acid Sulfate (AS) Soils
21.2.1 Development of Acid Soils
21.2.2 Development of Coastal and Inland Acid Sulfate Soils
21.2.3 Formation of Potential Acid Sulfate Soils (PASS)
21.2.3.1 Polysulfide Pathway
21.2.3.2 H[sub(2)]S Pathway
21.2.4 Formation of Actual Acid Sulfate Soils (AASS)
21.3 Agricultural and Environmental Impacts of Acid and Acid Sulfate Soils
21.3.1 Impact on the Environment
21.3.1.1 Soil and Sediment Acidification and Accumulation of Metals and Trace Elements
21.3.1.2 Surface Water Acidification and Mobilization of Metals and Trace Elements
21.3.1.3 Groundwater Acidification and Mobilization of Metals and Trace Elements
21.3.1.4 Deoxygenation
21.3.1.5 Release of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)
21.3.2 Impact on Agriculture
21.4 Management Practices
21.4.1 Chemical Amelioration
21.4.2 Use of Organic Matter
21.4.3 Biochar Amendment
21.4.4 Other Strategies to Minimize Acidity
21.5 Challenges and Limitations
21.6 Future Research
21.7 Remarks
References
Chapter 22 Mapping and Modelling Soil Constraints
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Digital Soil Mapping and Digital Soil Assessment
22.2.1 DSM and SCORPAN Model
22.2.2 DSA
22.2.3 What Soil Constraints Can Be Mapped?
22.3 Mapping Soil Constraints
22.3.1 Mapping Soil Constraints at Field Scales
22.3.2 Mapping Soil Constraints at Landscape and Regional Scales
22.3.3 Case Study: Identifying Yield Constraints in a Field
22.4 Discussion
22.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 23 A Critique of the Language of 'Constraints' and its Consequences for Soil Management
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Constraints
23.3 Consequences
23.3.1 Potential Consequence 1: Reduced Options for On-Farm Adaptation
23.3.2 Potential Consequence 2: Creating More Issues through Simplification
23.3.3 Potential Consequence 3: Reduced Social Goodwill Towards Soils
23.4 Some Other Current Framings for Consideration
23.5 In Conclusion
References
Chapter 24 Soil Constraints on Ecosystem Productivity and Their Management in Oil Sands Reclamation
24.1 Oil Sands Reclamation in Canada
24.2 Soil Constraints on Forest Growth in the Reclaimed Landscape in the Oil Sands
24.2.1 Physical Factors Affecting Forest Growth
24.2.1.1 Water Availability
24.2.1.2 Soil Compaction
24.2.2 Chemical Factors Affecting Forest Growth
24.2.2.1 Nutrient Availabilities
24.2.2.2 Acidity and Salinity
24.2.2.3 Heavy Metals
24.2.3 Biological Factors Affecting Forest Growth
24.2.3.1 Vegetation Competition
24.2.3.2 Effects of Reclamation on Microbial Activities
24.3 Potential Management Measures to Alleviate Soil Constraints
References
Chapter 25 Organic Carbon Turnover as Affected by Agricultural Activities in a Semitropical Zone of China
List of Abbreviations
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Materials and Methods
25.2.1 Sample Collection and Pretreatment
25.2.2 Biomarker Analysis
25.2.3 Elemental Analysis
25.3 Results and Discussion
25.3.1 Extraction Enhancement of Molecular Biomarkers after Acid Treatment
25.3.1.1 Increased Lipid Extraction after the Removal of Reactive Minerals
25.3.1.2 Active Mineral Removal Ensures Accurate Biomarker Information
25.3.2 SOM Turnover after the Conversion of Natural Bamboos to Rubber Trees
25.3.2.1 Changes in Soil Elemental Composition
25.3.2.2 SOM Turnover Indicated by Lipid Biomarkers
25.3.2.3 SOM Turnover as Suggested by Lignin-Derived Phenol Biomarkers
25.3.3 SOM Turnover in Yuanyang Terrace
25.3.3.1 Changes in Soil Elemental Compositions
25.3.3.2 SOM Turnover as Suggested by Lipid Biomarkers
25.3.3.3 SOM Turnover as Suggested by Lignin-Derived Phenols
25.3.4 Role of Organo-Mineral Association in SOM Stabilization
25.4 Conclusion and Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 26 Management of Soil Constraints in China with a Biochar Amendment: A Case Study in Paddy Fields in Subtropical China
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Materials and Methods
26.2.1 Study Site and Experimental Design
26.2.2 Soil Properties Measurements
26.2.2.1 Soil Aggregates Measurement
26.2.2.2 Soil Chemical Properties Measurement
26.2.2.3 Soil Biological Properties Measurement
26.2.3 Rice Yield and Nutrient Uptake Measurements
26.2.4 Greenhouse Gas Emission Measurement
26.2.5 Statistical Analyses
26.3 Results and Discussion
26.3.1 Effects of Biochar Amendment on Soil Aggregates
26.3.2 Effects of Biochar Amendment on Soil pH
26.3.3 Effects of Biochar Amendment on Soil Carbon Sequestration
26.3.4 Effects of Biochar Amendment on Soil Nitrogen Availability and Rice Nitrogen Uptake
26.3.5 Effects of Biochar Amendment on Soil Phosphorus Availability and Rice Phosphorus Uptake
26.3.6 Effects of Biochar Amendment on Greenhouse Gas Emissions
26.3.7 Effects of Biochar Amendment on Soil Microbial Diversity
26.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 27 Sugarcane Cultivation in Saline Soils of India
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Sugarcane Situation
27.3 Salt-Affected Soils
27.3.1 Classification of Salt-Affected Soils
27.3.2 Distribution of Salt-Affected Soils in India
27.3.3 Impact of Soluble Salts on Plants
27.4 Sugarcane Response and Salinity
27.5 Salinity Tolerance of Sugarcane
27.6 Organic Amendments for Sugarcane under Saline Conditions
27.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 28 Soil Constraints and Management Options for Sustainable Rainfed Production Systems of India
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Production Constraints in Rainfed Production Systems of India
28.3 Soil Productivity Constraints and Management Strategies
28.3.1 Land Degradation and Soil Erosion
28.3.1.1 Management Strategies to Control Land Degradation and Soil Erosion
28.3.2 Soil Physical Constraints and Management Strategies
28.3.2.1 Soil Crust Formation
28.3.2.2 Subsurface Hardpans and Compactness
28.3.2.3 Highly Permeable Rainfed Soils
28.3.3 Uncertainty of Rainfall
28.3.3.1 Management Strategies for Water Conservation
28.3.4 Low Organic Carbon and Multi-Nutrient Deficiencies
28.3.4.1 Management Strategies for Enhancing Soil Organic Carbon and Other Nutrients
28.3.5 Low Factor Productivity
28.3.5.1 Management Strategies for Increasing Factor Productivity
28.3.6 Small Holder Farmers
28.3.6.1 Management Strategies to Support Small Holder Farmers
28.4 Conclusion
28.5 Way Forward
References
Chapter 29 Soil Salinity and Sodicity in India – Adaptation and Mitigation Options
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Mitigation and Adaptation Options
29.3 Diagnostics of Soil Salinity
29.4 Visual Indicators of Soil Salinity
29.5 Soil Sodicity and Its Diagnostics
29.6 Visual Indicators of Soil Sodicity
29.7 Classification of Salt Affected Soils
29.8 Integrated Soil Reclamation Program (ISRP)
29.8.1 Physical Methods of Soil Reclamation
29.8.1.1 Leveling and Draining
29.8.1.2 Sub-soiling
29.8.1.3 Mixing Sand
29.8.1.4 Scraping
29.8.1.5 Seed Bed Preparation
29.8.2 Chemical Methods of Soil Reclamation
29.8.2.1 Use of Gypsum to Reclaim Sodic Soils
29.8.2.2 Use of Acids to Reclaim Calcareous Sodic Soils
29.8.2.3 Use of Elemental Sulfur to Reclaim Calcareous Sodic Soils
29.8.2.4 Acid Saline Pokkali Lands in Coastal Areas of Kerala
29.8.3 Hydrological Methods of Soil Reclamation
29.8.3.1 Leaching
29.8.3.2 Flushing
29.8.4 Biological Methods of Soil Reclamation
29.8.4.1 Use of Organic Amendments
29.8.4.2 Biosaline Agriculture
29.8.4.3 Bio-drainage
29.8.5 Other Options with Silvi-Pasture
References
Chapter 30 Potassium in Soils of India: Strategies for Sustainable Crop Productivity, Food, and Nutritional Security
Abbreviations
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Potassium Status in Indian Soils
30.3 Relative Distribution of K in Major Soil Orders of India
30.4 Distribution of Potassium Fractions in Indian Soils
30.5 "Mining" of Soil K under Intensive Cultivation in India
30.6 Reasons Behind Soil K "Mining" in India
30.7 Major Crops and Cropping Systems of India and K Uptake
30.8 Soil K "Mining" with Major Crops and Cropping Systems
30.9 Strategies for Sustainable Management of Potassium in Agriculture
30.9.1 Correct Assessment of Soil K Availability to Crops
30.9.2 Sources of K in Agriculture
30.9.2.1 Fertilizers
30.9.2.2 Crop Residues
30.9.2.3 Manures and Composts
30.9.2.4 Minerals
30.9.2.5 Potassium-Releasing Bacteria
30.9.3 Time and Method of Application
30.9.4 Use of Decision Support Tools
30.9.5 Scientific Tools/Interventions for Assessing Soil Fertility
30.10 Way Forward
References
Chapter 31 Assessment of the Soil Resources of Sub-Saharan Africa in Relation to Food Security: Perspectives Past, Present, and Future
31.1 Introduction
31.1.1 Linking Soils and Food Production in Sub-Saharan Africa
31.1.2 Current Situation and Trends of Land Degradation in Sub-Saharan Africa
31.1.3 Responses to the Impacts of Land and Environmental Degradation and Desertification
31.1.4 Food Safety Issues
31.2 Soil Resources
31.2.1 Total Arable Lands
31.2.2 Oil and Gas
31.3 Soil Degradation
31.4 Causes of Food Insecurity
31.4.1 Causes of Hunger in Sub-Saharan Africa
31.4.1.1 Poverty
31.4.1.2 Conflict
31.4.1.3 Environment
31.4.1.4 Population Growth
31.5 Magnitude of Food Insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa
31.5.1 Food Security
31.5.2 Household Food Security and Nutrition
31.5.3 Food Production Trends within Sub-Saharan Africa
31.5.4 Food Production and Smallholder Farmers
31.5.5 Supporting Capacity-Building in Food Safety Across Africa
31.6 Organic Food Production
31.6.1 Organic Farming in Sub-Saharan Africa
31.6.1.1 Organic Farming in Cameroon
31.6.1.2 Organic Food Production in Nigeria
31.6.1.3 Organic Food Production in Kenya
31.6.1.4 Organic Food Production in Chad
31.7 Poor Management and Limited Nutrient Supply
31.8 Perspectives: Past, Present, and Future
31.8.1 Past Perspectives
31.8.2 Present Perspectives
31.8.3 Future Perspectives
31.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 32 Effects of Biochar Application on Subtropical Mudstone Soils in Taiwan
32.1 Introduction
32.1.1 Distribution, Characteristic, and Classification of Mudstone Soils in Taiwan
32.1.2 Effects of Biochar Application on Soil Properties and Erosion Potential of Mudstone Soils
32.1.3 Effects of Biochar Application on Non-Point Source Pollution in Mudstone Area
32.1.4 Effects of Biochar Application on Vegetation Growing in Mudstone Area
32.2 Conclusions
References
Chapter 33 Cover Crops to Protect Soil During Winter in the Great Plains of the USA
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Materials and Methods
33.3 Results
33.4 Discussion
References
Index