Smart Nanodevices for Point-of-Care Applications

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
About the Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1 Antimicrobial Applications of Nanodevices Prepared from Metallic Nanoparticles and Their Role in Controlling Infectious Diseases
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Different Types of Metal Nanoparticles
1.2.1 Silver Nanoparticles
1.2.2 Gold Nanoparticles
1.2.3 Zinc Nanoparticles
1.2.4 Selenium Nanoparticles
1.2.5 Copper Nanoparticles
1.3 Antimicrobial Activity of Metallic Nanoparticles
1.3.1 Gold Nanoparticles
1.3.2 Silver Nanoparticles
1.3.3 Selenium Nanoparticles
1.3.4 Zinc Nanoparticles
1.3.5 Copper Nanoparticles
1.4 Metallic Nanoparticles and Their Role in Controlling Infectious Pathogens
1.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2 Asthma Epidemiology, Etiology, Pathophysiology and Management in the Current Scenario
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Epidemiology of Asthma
2.3 Etiology and Risk Factors of Asthma
2.4 Pathophysiology of Asthma
2.4.1 Diagnosis of Asthma
2.4.2 Current Treatments Available for Asthma
2.4.2.1 First-Line Allopathic Treatments
2.4.2.2 Additional Allopathic and Surgical Therapies
2.5 Aromatherapy
2.6 Ayurvedic Treatments
2.7 Yogas and Aasnas
2.8 Diet
2.9 Recently Approved Monoclonal Antibodies for Asthma Treatment
2.10 Recent Research and Novel Treatments
2.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3 Recent Trends in Evaluating the Mechanistic Aspects of Alzheimer’s Disease and Its Diagnosis with Smart Devices
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Epidemiology
3.3 Biomarkers
3.3.1 Nonspecific Biomarkers
3.3.2 Specific Biomarkers
3.4 Digital Biomarkers and Sensors
3.5 Recent Marketed Technologies
3.6 Data Collection
3.6.1 Active Data Collection
3.6.2 Passive Data Collection
3.6.3 Concerns for the Collection of Data
3.6.4 Condition-Specific Metrics
3.6.4.1 Cameras
3.6.4.2 Accelerometer/Gyrometer
3.6.4.3 Global Positioning System (GPS)
3.6.4.4 Microphones
3.6.4.5 Electrocardiogram (ECG)
3.6.4.6 Thermometers
3.6.4.7 Electromyogram (EMG)
3.7 Future Prospects and Conclusion
References
Chapter 4 Eco-Friendly Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles for Smart Nanodevices in the Treatment of Diseases
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Nanotechnology
4.2.1 Nanoparticles
4.2.1.1 Metal Nanoparticles
4.2.1.2 Different Types of Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles
4.3 Biomedical Applications
4.3.1 Antitumor and Anticancer Activity
4.3.2 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
4.3.3 Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity
4.3.4 Wound Healing Activity
4.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Raman SERS Nanodevices: The Next-Generation Multiplex Tools for Cancer Diagnostics
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Raman Spectroscopy
5.1.2 SERS Technology
5.1.3 SERS Enhancement Mechanism
5.2 Design and Fabrication of SERS Labels
5.2.1 Choice of Metal
5.2.2 Hot Spots
5.2.3 Raman Active Molecules
5.2.4 Outer Protective Shell
5.2.5 Bioconjugation
5.3 SERS Labels in Cancer Diagnosis
5.3.1 Cancer Screening
5.3.2 Imaging Technique Based on SERS Detection
5.3.3 Multifunctional Applications of SERS Labels
5.4 Future Prospects
References
Chapter 6 Smartphone-Based Nanodevices for Point-of-Care Diagnostics
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Smartphone-Based Optical Sensors
6.2.1 Colorimetric Biosensors and Nanodevices
6.2.2 Fluorescence-Based Nanodevices
6.2.3 Smartphone-Based Imaging in Nanodevices
6.3 Smartphone-Based Electrochemical Biosensors
6.3.1 Amperometric Smartphone Devices
6.3.2 Potentiometric Smartphone Devices
6.3.3 Impedimetric Smartphone Devices
6.4 Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)-Based Nanodevices
6.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 7 Current and Future Prospects in the Treatment of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorders
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Respiratory System
7.3 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
7.3.1 Causes of COPD
7.3.2 Diagnosis of COPD
7.3.3 Factors Affecting Drug Absorption in the Respiratory System
7.3.3.1 Physiological Factors
7.3.3.2 Physicochemical Factors
7.3.3.3 Pharmaceutical Factors
7.3.4 Treatment Available for COPD
7.4 Devices Used for Drug Delivery
7.4.1 Metered-Dose Inhalers (MDIs)
7.4.2 Dry Powder Inhalers
7.4.3 Soft Mist Inhalers
7.4.4 Nebulizers
7.5 Supplementary Therapies
7.6 Surgical Therapies
7.7 Other Therapies
7.7.1 Exercise
7.7.2 Diet
7.7.3 Avoiding Pollution
7.8 Aromatherapy
7.9 Homeopathy Treatment for COPD
7.10 Novel Approaches to Treat COPD
7.11 Future Prospects for COPD
7.12 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8 Screening and Pharmacological Management of Neuropathic Pain
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Pathophysiology of Pain
8.3 Types of Pain
8.3.1 Psychogenic Pain
8.3.2 Nociceptive Pain
8.3.3 Neuropathic Pain
8.4 Causes of Neuropathic Pain Conditions
8.4.1 Diabetes
8.4.2 HIV Infection
8.4.3 Chemotherapy-Induced
8.4.4 Herpes Infection
8.4.5 Damage or Injury to Trigeminal Nerve
8.4.6 Spinal Cord Injury
8.4.7 Central Post-Stroke Pain
8.5 Current Screening Tools for Neuropathic Pain
8.5.1 Leeds Assessment of Neuropathic Symptoms and Signs (LANSS)
8.5.2 Douleur Neuropathique Four Questions (DN4)
8.5.3 ID-Pain
8.5.4 Neuropathic Pain Scale (NPS)
8.5.5 Pain Quality Assessment Scale (PQAS)
8.6 Management of Neuropathic Pain
8.6.1 Pharmacological Interventions
8.6.2 Antidepressants
8.6.3 Anticonvulsants
8.6.4 Opioids
8.6.5 Muscle Relaxants
8.6.6 Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs
8.6.7 Corticosteroids
8.6.8 Topical Analgesics
8.6.9 Newer Pharmacological Interventions
8.6.10 Combination Pharmacotherapy
8.7 Neuromodulation Techniques
8.7.1 Nerve Block Therapy
8.7.2 Psychological Therapies
8.7.3 Physical Therapy
References
Chapter 9 Clinical Use of Innovative Nanomaterials in Dentistry
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Nanomaterial for Caries Arresting Agents
9.3 Innovative Nanomaterials for Restoration of Dental Caries
9.3.1 Bioactive Nanocomposites for Root Caries
9.3.2 Nano-Modified GIC
9.4 Nanomaterials in Minimal Invasive Dentistry for Management of Non-Pitted White Spot Lesions
9.4.1 Nanomaterials for Enamel Remineralization
9.4.2 Resin Infiltration Technique with Nano Enhancement
9.4.3 Nano-Incorporated Tooth Bleaching Agents
9.5 Nanomaterials for Esthetic Intervention
9.5.1 Pitted Enamel Defects
9.5.2 Fragment Reattachment
9.5.3 Esthetic Buildup of Fractured Anterior Teeth
9.6 Nano-Modified Caries Vaccine
9.7 Nano-Enhanced Orthodontic Materials
9.7.1 Nano-Coated Orthodontic Archwires
9.7.2 Silver Nanoparticle-Coated Orthodontic Appliances
9.8 Dental Nanorobots
9.8.1 Nano Anesthesia
9.8.2 Nanorobotic Dentrifices (Dentifrobots)
9.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10 Graphene-Based Electrochemicals and Biosensors for Multifaceted Applications in Healthcare
10.1 Introduction to Electrochemical Sensors and Their Significance in Healthcare
10.2 Graphene: An Efficient Electrode Modifier for EC Sensing
10.3 Functionalized Graphene as an EC Sensor
10.4 Classification of Electrochemical and Biosensors Based on Transduction
10.5 Graphene-Based EC Sensors for Dopamine
10.6 Graphene-Based EC Biosensor
10.7 Conclusions and Future Scope
References
Chapter 11 Latest Trends in Bioimaging Using Quantum Dots
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Modification in Quantum Dots for Specific Labeling
11.2.1 Application of Quantum Dots in Bioimaging
11.2.1.1 QDs as a Nanoprobe for Labeling of Lipids
11.2.1.2 QDs for Imaging of Neurons
11.2.2.3 QDS for In Vitro Imaging
11.2.2.4 QDS for In Vivo Imaging
11.3 Heavy Metal–Free QDs for Ex Vivo Imaging
11.3.1 Graphene Quantum Dots (GQDs)
11.3.2 Semiconductor Quantum Dots
11.3.3 Near-Infrared Quantum Dots (NIR QDs)
11.3.4 Fluorescent Jelly Quantum Dots
11.3.5 PEG-Coated Biocompatible Quantum Dots
11.4 QDs for Transfection
11.5 Future Perspective or Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 12 Quantum Dots as a Versatile Tool for Bioimaging Applications
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Synthesis of QDs
12.3 Optical Properties
12.4 The Application of QDs to Cell Imaging
12.4.1 Cell Staining
12.4.2 Fluorescence Probe and Sensor
12.4.3 Living Cell Tracking
12.5 Quantum Dots for Multiplexed Bioimaging
12.6 In Vitro and In Vivo Imaging Applications of Quantum Dots
12.7 Challenges
12.8 Cytotoxicity
12.9 Future Prospects
12.10 Conclusion
Declaration of Competing Interest
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 13 Nanodevices for Drug Delivery Systems
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Nano-Drug Delivery Systems
13.2.1 Liposomes
13.2.2 Polymer Micellar Co-Delivery System
13.2.3 Dendritic Macromolecules
13.2.4 Inorganic Metallic/Non-Metallic Nanomaterials
13.2.5 Composite Nanomaterials
13.3 Drug Delivery Process
13.3.1 Targeting Mechanism for Nano-Drug Delivery System
13.3.2 Natural Product-Based Drug Delivery
13.3.3 Biomedical Application of Nanoparticles for Diagnosis and Treatment
13.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14 Nanodevices for the Detection of Cancer Cells
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Application of Nanodevices for Recognition of Cancer Cells
14.2.1 Aptamer-Conjugated Nanomaterials for Specific Cell Recognition
14.2.2 Nanotechnology in Cancer Diagnosis
14.2.3 Tools Based on Nanotechnology to Be Used in Cancer Diagnosis
14.2.3.1 Near-Infrared (NIR) Quantum Dots
14.2.3.2 Nanoshells
14.2.3.3 Colloidal Gold Nanoparticles
14.2.4 Recognition of Circulating Tumor Cells
14.2.5 Detection through Cell Surface Protein Recognition
14.2.6 Detection Based on mRNA
14.2.7 Nanotechnology for In Vivo Imaging
14.2.7.1 Passive Targeting
14.2.7.2 Active Targeting
14.3 Application of Nanodevices in Delivery of Anticancer Drugs
14.4 Nanoparticle-Based Drug Formulations
14.5 Characteristics of Nanoparticle Drug Formulations
14.5.1 Size of Particle
14.5.2 Surface Properties
14.5.3 Drug Loading and Release
14.5.4 Passive and Active Targeting
14.5.5 Targeted Drug Delivery
14.6 Application of Nanoparticle Technology
14.6.1 Nanoparticles: Particles Having Unique Properties to Be Considered as Delivery Vehicles
14.7 Types of Nanoparticle Carriers
14.7.1 Liposomes
14.7.2 Bionanocapsules
14.7.3 Gold Nanoparticles
14.7.4 Polymeric Nanoparticles
14.7.5 Chitosan Nanoparticles
14.7.6 PLGA Nanoparticles
14.7.7 Cyclodextrin Nanoparticles
14.7.8 Polymeric Micelles
14.7.9 Dendrimers
14.7.10 Inorganic Nanoparticles
14.8 Therapeutic Application for Cancer Cells
14.9 Conclusion
14.9.1 Cancer Treatments Using Nanotechnology
References
Chapter 15 Nanomaterial-Modified Pencil Graphite Electrode as a Multiplexed Low-Cost Point-of-Care Device
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Material Constituent and Quality
15.3 Design and Characterization
15.4 Inbuilt Attributes and Properties
15.5 Application in Biomedical Platforms
15.5.1 Usage/Applicability in Real-Life Scenarios
15.6 Bottlenecks
15.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 16 An Outbreak of Oxidative Stress in Pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Sources of Free Radicals
16.2.1 Mitochondria as a Site of Free Radical Generation
16.2.2 Peroxisomes as a Site of Free Radical Generation
16.2.3 Endoplasmic Reticulum as a Site of Free Radical Generation
16.3 Hallmarks of AD
16.4 Role of Cholesterol in AD
16.5 Molecular Link of OS with Abeta-Induced Toxicity
16.6 Proteins Involved in AD
16.7 Lethal Consequences of AD
16.8 Conclusion
Credit Author’s Statement
Declaration of Competing Interest
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 17 Applications of Nanotechnology and Nanodevices for the Early-Stage Detection of Cancer Cells
17.1 Introduction
17.2 The Aim and Objective of This Chapter
17.3 Application Areas of Nanodevices
17.3.1 Role of Nanotechnology and Nanodevices in Cancer Detection
17.3.2 Gold Nanoparticles
17.3.3 Gold Nanoparticles in Photo-Thermal Therapy and Photo-Imaging
17.3.4 Quantum Dots
17.3.5 Quantum Dot Applications in Cancer Imaging and Cancer Detection
17.3.6 Cellular Targeting and Imaging
17.3.7 In Vivo Targeting and Imaging
17.3.8 Nanowires
17.3.9 Nanoshells
17.3.10 Photo-Thermal Ablation Therapy
17.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18 Nanoparticles: The Promising Future of Advanced Diagnosis and Treatment of Neurological Disorders
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Neurological Disorders and Nanoparticles
18.2.1 Polymeric Nanoparticle Technology (PNT)
18.2.2 Magnetic Iron-Oxide Nanotechnology (MFN)
18.2.3 Exosomes and Liposomes (E and L)
18.2.4 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNP)
18.3 Diagnostic Bio-Barcoding of Enzymes
18.3.1 Fluorescent Labeling to Detect Cellular Abnormalities
18.3.2 Biosensors to Detect Cognitive Decline and Neurotransmitters
18.3.3 Colorimetric Method to Analyze Inflammatory Mediators
18.3.4 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Method
18.3.5 Biochips to Detect Changes in the Brain
18.4 Applications of Nanotechnology in CNS Disorders
18.4.1 Epilepsy
18.4.2 Alzheimer’s Disease
18.4.3 Parkinson’s Disease
18.4.4 Huntington’s Disease
18.4.5 Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
18.5 Nanoparticles in Detection of Neurological Cancers
18.5.1 Detection of Extracellular Biomarkers of Cancer
18.5.2 Proteins as Biomarkers
18.5.3 Detection of Micro-RNA (miR) as a Biomarker
18.5.4 Detection of Extracellular Vesicles (EV)
18.5.5 Circulating DNA (ctDNA) as Biomarkers
18.6 Detection of Cancer Cells in the Direct Method
18.6.1 Detection of Circulating Cells
18.6.2 Detection of Cells via Surface Protein Detection
18.6.3 Detection by Targeting the Tumors by Imaging
18.6.4 Passive Targeting
18.6.5 Active Targeting
18.7 Ongoing Clinical Trials
18.8 Bioimaging
18.8.1 Nanoparticles in Bioimaging
18.8.1.1 Imaging Using Fluorescence
18.8.1.2 Raman Scattering
18.8.1.3 Imaging Using Persistent Luminescence
18.8.1.4 Imaging Using Photoacoustics
18.9 Tissue Engineering in Neurology with Nano-Scaffolds
18.10 Neuro Knitting
18.11 Future Prospects
18.11.1 NEMS: Nanoelectromechanical Devices
18.11.2 Artificial Intelligence in Nanotechnology
18.12 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19 Advances in Regenerative Medicine and Nano-Based Biomaterials
19.1 Introduction to Regenerative Medicine
19.1.1 Advantages of Regenerative Medicine
19.1.2 Disadvantages
19.2 Common Biomaterials Used in Regenerative Medicine
19.2.1 Bioactive Ceramics
19.2.2 Polymeric Biomaterials
19.2.3 Composites
19.3 Biomedical Applications of New Classes of Scaffolds
19.4 Hydrogels as Tissue Engineering Scaffolds
19.5 Cryogels as Tissue Engineering Scaffolds
19.6 Application of Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine
19.6.1 Bone Tissue
19.6.2 Nervous Tissue
19.6.3 Skeletal and Cardiac Muscles
19.6.4 Inorganic RG
19.7 Toxicity of Biomaterials
19.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20 Magnetic Nanocomposites and Their Biomedical Applications
20.1 Introduction
20.1.1 Introduction to Nanostructured Materials
20.1.2 Morphology of Nanomaterials
20.1.3 Classification of Nanomaterials
20.1.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes (CNT)
20.1.3.2 Carbon Black
20.1.3.3 Fullerenes
20.1.3.4 Nanocomposites
20.1.3.5 Nano-Polymers
20.1.3.6 Nano-Ceramics
20.2 Classification of Nanoparticles
20.2.1 Engineered Nanoparticles
20.2.2 Non-Engineered Nanoparticles
20.3 Nanotechnology Applications
20.3.1 Synthesis Methods of Nanomaterials
20.3.1.1 Chemical Precipitation
20.3.1.2 Surfactant and Capping Agent-Assisted Process
20.3.2 Synthesis of Materials
20.3.2.1 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Synthesis
20.3.2.2 Sonochemical Process
20.3.2.3 Co-Precipitation
20.3.2.4 Sol-Gel
20.3.2.5 Solid-State Reaction
20.4 Magnetic Nanomaterials and Graphene-Based Composites
20.4.1 Metal-Based Graphene Composites
20.4.2 Fe2O3-Graphene Hybrids
20.5 Fe3O4-Graphene Composites
20.5.1 Fe3O4/G Aerogels
20.5.2 Bicomponent Fe3O4/G Hybrids
20.5.3 Multicomponent Fe3O4/G Hybrids
20.5.4 Carbon Nanotube-Based Iron Composites
20.6 Magnetic Nanoparticles and Their Medicinal Applications
20.6.1 Magnetic Hyperthermia in Cancer Treatment
20.6.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
20.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 21 Ultrathin Graphene Structure, Fabrication and Characterization for Clinical Diagnosis Applications
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Design and Synthesis of Graphene
21.2.1 Experimental Details
21.2.1.1 Top-Down Approach
21.2.1.2 Bottom-Up Approaches
21.3 Characterization of Graphene
21.3.1 Spectroscopic Characterization
21.3.1.1 X-Ray Photo Electron Spectroscopy (XPS)
21.3.1.2 Fourier Transformation Infrared Spectroscopy
21.3.1.3 Raman Spectroscopy
21.3.2 Microscopic Characterization
21.3.2.1 Optical Microscope (OM)
21.3.2.2 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM)
21.3.2.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
21.3.2.4 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM)
21.4 Graphene Materials for Clinical Diagnosis Applications
21.4.1 Graphene Materials for Virus Diagnosis
21.4.2 Graphene for Bacterial Diagnosis
21.4.3 Graphene for Circulating Tumor Cell Detection
21.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 22 3D-Printed Nanodevices of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Relevance
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Technologies Used for Fabrication
22.2.1 Stereolithography (SLA)
22.2.2 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
22.2.3 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
22.2.4 Pressure-Assisted Microsyringe Extrusion (PAM)
22.2.5 Drop-on-Powder (DOP)
22.2.6 Digital Light Processing (DLP)
22.3 3D-Printed Drug Delivery Devices
22.4 3D-Printed Medical Devices
22.5 3D-Printed Biosensors and Diagnostic Devices
22.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 23 Nanofluids: Basic Information on Preparation, Stability, and Applications
23.1 Introduction
23.1.1 Nanofluids
23.1.2 Preparation of Nanofluids
23.1.2.1 Two-Step Method
23.1.2.2 One-Step Method
23.2 Stability Evaluation of Nanofluids
23.2.1 Sedimentation and Centrifugation Methods
23.2.2 Zeta Potential Analysis
23.2.3 Spectral Absorbency Analysis
23.3 Ways to Enhance the Stability of Nanofluids
23.3.1 Using of Surfactants in Nanofluids
23.4 Advantages of Nanofluids
23.5 Applications of Nanofluids
23.5.1 Heat Transfer Intensification
23.5.1.1 Electronic Applications
23.5.2 Transportation
23.5.3 Industrial Cooling Applications
23.5.4 Heating Buildings and Reducing Pollution
23.5.5 Space and Defense
23.5.5.1 Nuclear Cooling Systems
23.5.6 Energy Applications
23.5.6.1 Energy Storage
23.5.6.2 Solar Absorption
23.5.7 Mechanical Applications
23.5.7.1 Friction Reduction
23.5.7.2 Magnetic Sealing
23.5.8 Biomedical Applications
23.5.8.1 Antibacterial Activity
23.5.8.2 Nano-Drug Delivery
23.5.9 Mass Transfer Enhancement
23.5.10 Other Applications
23.5.10.1 Intensify Micro-Reactors
23.5.10.2 Nanofluids as Vehicular Brake F23luids
23.5.10.3 Nanofluid-Based Microbial Fuel Cells
23.5.10.4 Nanofluids with Unique Optical Properties
23.6 Limitations of Nanofluids
23.6.1 Lower Specific Heat
23.6.2 Increased Pressure Drops and Pumping Power
23.6.3 High Cost of Nanofluids
23.6.4 Poor Long-Term Stability of Suspension
23.7 Conclusion
23.8 Future Scope
References
Chapter 24 Recent Trends in Nanomaterial-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Biomedical Applications
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Electrochemical Biosensor Detection Strategies
24.2.1 Electrochemical Detection
24.2.1.1 Potentiometric Detection
24.2.1.2 Conductometric Detection
24.2.1.3 Voltammetric Detection
24.2.1.4 Impedimetric Detection
24.3 Types of Nanostructured Materials
24.3.1 Metal and Metal Oxide-Based Nanomaterials
24.3.2 Carbon and Nitrogen-Doped Nanomaterials
24.3.3 Conducting Polymer-Based Nanomaterials
24.4 Nanostructure-Based Electrochemical Sensing
24.4.1 Zero-Dimensional (0D) Nanomaterials
24.4.2 One-Dimensional (1D) Nanomaterials
24.4.3 Two-Dimensional (2D) Nanomaterials
24.4.4 Three-Dimensional (3D) Nanomaterials
24.5 Transducer and Bio-Recognition Unit Integration
24.6 Challenges and Application of Electrochemical Biosensors
24.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 25 Impact of Calcium Ions (Ca2+) and Their Signaling in Alzheimer’s and Other Neurological-Related Disorders
25.1 Introduction
25.1.1 Possible Linkage between Calcium and AD
25.1.2 Calcium Homeostasis
25.1.3 Plasma Membrane
25.1.4 Endoplasmic Reticulum
25.1.5 Nucleus
25.1.6 Golgi Apparatus
25.2 Mitochondria
25.2.1 Vitality and Importance of Mitochondrial Ca2+ Uptake
25.2.2 Different Proteins Differentially Involved in Mitochondrial [Ca2+] Uptake
25.2.2.1 MCU
25.2.2.2 MICU
25.2.2.3 MICU2/3
25.2.2.4 MCUR
25.2.2.5 EMRE
25.2.2.6 NCX
25.2.3 Other Efflux Proteins
25.2.4 ER-Mitochondria Connections
25.2.4.1 Peroxisomes
25.3 Correlation between Calcium and Castigatory Dysregulation with AD
25.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
Ethics Statement
References
Index