Does sex matter when it comes to brain function? This volume attempts to answer this very important question which is of relevance to the disciplines of psychology, neuroscience, psychiatry and neurology. Understanding how brain function and resultant behaviors may differ between the sexes impacts upon our knowledge of the pathology and development of treatments for various neurological and psychiatric disorders, particularly those that show significant sex differences in either prevalence and/or manifestation of symptoms.
This volume covers three main themes of research into sex differences in basic neurobiology, psychology, preclinical research and clinical research. It begins by exploring our understanding of sex and gender in relation to both animal and human behaviors and discusses the relevance, and importance, of considering sex and gender when conducting research into brain function and behaviors. The second theme focuses on how sex and gender influence mental health and considers the impact of our immune system and the changes that occur with ageing. Finally, the third aspect focuses on examples of neurological disorder which show sex differences in terms of their aetiology and/or symptomology and considers the relevance in the development of treatment for these disorders including dementia, stroke and multiple sclerosis.
This volume is of considerable interest to mental health and neurology professionals, including psychiatrists, neurologists, nurses, allied health clinicians and pharmacists. It is also helpful and important for preclinical researchers working in neuroscience, psychopharmacology and reproductive endocrinology.
Author(s): Claire Gibson, Liisa A. M. Galea
Series: Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 62
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2023
Language: English
Pages: 376
City: Cham
Preface
References
Contents
Part I: Considering Sex and Gender in Research Studies
Sex and Gender Science: The World Writes on the Body
1 Sex and Gender Science: The World Writes on the Body
2 Integrating Objective and Subjective Sleep Measures with Sex and Gender Science
2.1 The Role of Sex and Gender in Explaining Misalignment of PSG and Self-Reports
2.2 Considering Gender Might Explain Objective and Subjective Sleep Misalignment
3 Integrating Subjective Experiences in Memory Research
4 Neuropathic Pain and Very Mixed Methods
5 Sex and Gender in Concussion
5.1 Gender in Repetitive Brain Injuries
5.2 Contextualizing Differences
5.3 The Intersection of Sex and Gender in Concussion
6 Discussion
References
Best Practices in the Study of Gender
1 Introduction
2 Exposing the Gender Bias in Traditional Biomedical Research
3 Introducing Sex and Gender into Research as Determinants of Health
4 EU Research Policy 2000-2010
4.1 Gender as a Multidimensional Concept
5 EU Research Policy 2010-2020
5.1 Comparing Research Policy Initiatives of International Science Funding Bodies
6 Best Practices
6.1 Gender Medicine as a Scientific Field of Its Own
6.2 Measuring Gender
6.3 Curriculum Development
6.4 Dissemination
6.5 (Online) Trainings
6.6 Editorial Policies of Journals
7 Current Challenges
7.1 Diversity and Inclusion
7.2 Evaluation Criteria and Monitoring of Policies
References
The Curious Case of the Naked Mole-Rat: How Extreme Social and Reproductive Adaptations Might Influence Sex Differences in the...
1 Naked Mole-Rats: A Case for Social Status
2 Brain Morphology: Status Differences, Not Sex Differences
3 Brain Gene and Receptor Expression: Status Differences and Sex Differences
4 Damaraland Mole-Rats as a Comparison
5 Reduced Sex Differences: Why and How?
6 Conclusion
References
Sex/Gender Differences in Brain Lateralisation and Connectivity
1 Introduction
2 Sex/Gender Differences in Lateralisation
2.1 Sex/Gender Differences in Structural Cerebral Asymmetries
3 Sex/Gender Differences in Connectivity
3.1 Structural Connectivity
3.2 Functional Connectivity
3.2.1 Task-Related Connectivity
3.2.2 Resting-State Connectivity
3.3 Sex/Gender Differences in Functional Cerebral Asymmetries
3.4 Hormonal Influences on Lateralisation and Connectivity
3.5 The Case for a Biopsychosocial Approach
4 Conclusion
References
Part II: Sex Differences in Cognitive and Mental Health Across the Lifespan
Sex Differences in Depression and Anxiety
1 Introduction
2 Sex Differences in Depression and Anxiety
2.1 Sex Differences in Transcriptomic and Genetic Evidence of Depression and Anxiety
2.2 Sex Differences in the Immune System Response in Depression and Anxiety
2.3 Sex Differences in Neuroendocrine Aspects of Depression and Anxiety
2.4 Sex Differences in Cognition During Depression and Anxiety
3 Sex Differences in Treatment
3.1 Sex Differences in Pharmacokinetics
3.2 Sex Differences in Pharmacodynamics
3.3 Sex Differences in Side Effects of Antidepressants
3.4 Hormonal Milieu and Antidepressants
3.5 Neuroestrogens in Depression and Anxiety
3.6 Effect of Antidepressants on Hormonal Levels
4 Conclusion: Sex as a Biological Variable
References
Sex Differences in Psychosis: Focus on Animal Models
1 Sex Differences in Schizophrenia Epidemiology, Symptomatology, and Pathophysiology
1.1 Schizophrenia
1.2 Sex Differences in Schizophrenia Symptoms and Epidemiology
1.3 Sex Differences in Schizophrenia Pathophysiology: Post-Mortem Studies
2 Sex Differences and Sex Hormone Effects in Behavioral Animal Models
2.1 Locomotor Hyperactivity
2.1.1 Sex Differences and Hormone Treatments
2.1.2 Locomotor Hyperactivity Studies in Developmental Models of Psychosis
2.2 Prepulse Inhibition
2.2.1 Sex Differences and Hormone Treatments
2.2.2 PPI Studies in Developmental Models of Psychosis
2.3 Sex Differences in Genetic Animal Models of Schizophrenia
2.3.1 Reelin
2.3.2 Neuregulin
2.3.3 DISC1
2.3.4 BDNF
3 Conclusions
References
Sex Differences in Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Key Role for the Immune System
1 Introduction
2 ASD and ADHD Symptomology
2.1 ASD
2.2 ADHD
3 Sexual Differentiation: Why Do Sex Differences Matter?
4 Immune Cells Shape Neurodevelopment and Behavior
4.1 Microglia
4.1.1 Microglia Are Dysregulated in ASD
4.2 Astrocytes
4.3 Mast Cells
5 Peripheral Inflammation, Neurodevelopmental Disorders, and Brain Development
5.1 Peripheral Immune Dysregulation in ASD and ADHD
5.1.1 What about Sex Differences?
5.2 Maternal/Prenatal Immune Activation
5.3 Early Life Immune Activation
6 Concluding Remarks and Ways Forward
References
Sex Differences in Social Cognition
1 Introduction
2 Sex Differences in Social Recognition
2.1 Estrogens and Androgens
2.2 Oxytocin and Vasopressin
3 Sex Differences in Social Learning
3.1 Birds
3.2 Rodents
3.3 Non-human Primates
4 Sex Differences in Aggressive Behaviors
5 Conclusions and Relevance to Humans
References
Sex Differences in Cognition Across Aging
1 Introduction
2 Sex Differences in Cognition
2.1 Sex Differences in Cognitive Domains
2.2 Sex Differences Across Cognitive Domains
2.3 Sex Differences in Learning Strategies and Brain Networks
3 Cognition Throughout the Aging Process
3.1 Cognitive Aging
3.2 The Neurobiology of Cognitive Aging
3.3 Sex Differences in Cognitive Aging
4 Dementia
4.1 Cognitive Decline in Alzheimer´s Disease
5 Lifestyle Factors on Cognition, Cognitive Aging, and Dementia
5.1 Obesity and Cognition
5.2 Diet and Cognition
5.2.1 Western Diet
5.2.2 High-Fat Diet (HFD)
5.2.3 High Sugar Diet (HSD)
5.3 Body Weight, Diet Intake, and Alzheimer´s Disease
6 Conclusions
References
Part III: Diseases of the Brain and Relevance of Sex
Sex Differences in the Long-Term Consequences of Stroke
1 Introduction
2 Post-Stroke Mobility and Muscle Weakness
3 Post-Stroke Memory and Cognitive Deficits
3.1 Stroke and Dementia
4 Post-Stroke Mental Health and Mood
4.1 Quality of Life
4.2 Depression
4.3 Personality Changes
4.4 Pain
5 Preclinical Models of Stroke
6 Conclusion
References
Sex Differences in Dementia
1 Background
1.1 The Dementias, Increasing Prevalence and Costs Worldwide
1.2 Non Modifiable Demographic Risk Factors for Alzheimer´s Disease and Other Dementias
2 Possible Reasons for Sex Differences in Alzheimer´s Disease
2.1 Loss of Sex Steroid Hormones in Middle-Aged Women as a Modifiable Risk Factor
2.1.1 Cognitive Change Over the Menopause and Taking Hormone Replacement Therapy
2.1.2 Should Women Take HRT in Midlife to Reduce Risk for Dementia in Later Life?
2.1.3 Why Is There a Difference Between Animal, Observational and Treatment Studies?
2.2 Cardiovascular Age at Mortality and Sex
2.3 Cardiovascular Disease and Estrogens
2.3.1 Sex Differences in Engaging in Protective/Risk Factors Associated with Mortality
2.4 Lifestyle-Related Protective Factors: Exercise and Other Activities
3 Discussion
References
Immune Cell Contributors to the Female Sex Bias in Multiple Sclerosis and Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis
1 Introduction
2 RR-MS is a Female-Biased Disease that Manifests in the Reproductive Years
3 Relapses and Inflammatory Lesion Formation are more Frequent in Females in Early MS
4 Pregnancy in MS Risk
5 EAE Models that Recapitulate the Female Sex Bias in CNS Autoimmunity
6 Role of Sex Hormones and Chromosomes in MS and EAE Onset
7 Sex Differences in Immune Mechanisms that Contribute to the Sex Disparity in CNS Autoimmunity
7.1 Primer on the Autoimmune Mechanisms in MS and EAE
7.1.1 Autoimmune Mechanisms in MS
7.1.2 Autoimmune Mechanisms in EAE
7.2 Myelin-Specific Th1 Cells Expand More in Females Post-Vaccination
7.3 CD4+ T Cells are more Abundant in Females and Exhibit Intrinsic Differences in Activation
7.4 Myelin-Specific T Cells Isolated from Male TCR Transgenic Mice Are More Able to Cause EAE
7.5 Sex Differences in DC Function and MHC-II Expression
7.6 T Effector Responses are Skewed Towards Th1 in Females
7.7 T Effector Responses Are Skewed Towards Th2 in Males
7.8 Sex Differences in Th17 Responses in EAE/MS
7.9 Sex Differences in CD4+ Treg Cell Numbers and Activity
7.10 Sex Differences in T Cell IL-10 Production
7.11 Sex Differences in CD8+ T Cells in MS Risk and MS Progression
7.12 Sex Differences in NK Cells as Contributors to the Increased Tissue Damage in Males with MS
7.13 Sex Differences in B Cells: Humoral Responses Are More Robust in Females
7.14 Sex Differences in the Trafficking of T Cells Across the BBB
7.15 Sex Differences in Microglia Phenotype
8 Conclusions
References
