Science and Technology of Liquid Metal Coolants in Nuclear Engineering

Front Cover
Science and Technology of Liquid Metal Coolants in Nuclear Engineering
Science and Technology of Liquid Metal Coolants in Nuclear Engineering
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Foreword by Anil Kakodkar
Foreword by Christian Latgé
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 - Thermophysical and nuclear properties of liquid metal coolants
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Metallic bonding and the state of liquid metals1
1.3 Cohesive energy of liquid metals
1.4 Structure of liquid metals
1.5 Surface energy of liquids and the phenomenon of wetting
1.5.1 Surface energies of liquid metals and alloys
1.5.2 Surface energy of metallic solids
1.5.3 Wetting phenomenon in liquid metal systems
1.5.3.1 Inert wetting
1.5.3.2 Reactive wetting
1.6 Viscosity of liquid metals
1.7 Electrical conductivity of metallic materials
1.7.1 Electrical conductivity of crystalline metals
1.7.2 Electrical conductivity of amorphous solid and liquid metals
1.8 Thermal conductivity of materials
1.8.1 Thermal conductivity of solid-state materials [58–61]
1.8.2 Thermal conductivity of liquid metals
1.9 Molar heat capacity of liquid metals
1.10 Vapor pressure of liquid metals
1.11 Magnetic properties of metals
1.11.1 Magnetic properties of solid-state materials [70,71]
1.11.1.1 Diamagnetism
1.11.1.2 Paramagnetism
1.11.1.2.1 Simple ionic systems
1.11.1.2.2 Simple metals
1.11.1.3 Ferromagnetism
1.11.2 Magnetic properties of molten metals
1.12 Nuclear properties of the liquid metal coolants
1.13 Choice of coolant for advanced nuclear systems
1.13.1 Fast breeder reactors
1.13.2 Tokamak fusion reactor—choice of lithium and Pb-Li eutectic alloy as coolant and tritium breeder
1.13.3 Accelerator driven system and choice of lead and LBE as spallation target and coolant
References
2 - Chemical properties of liquid metal coolants
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Alkali metal coolants
2.2.1 Production of alkali metal coolants [1–6]
2.2.2 Preparation of high purity alkali metals
2.2.3 Chemical reactions of alkali metals and NaK alloys
2.2.3.1 Reactions with air and oxygen
2.2.3.2 Reactions with nitrogen
2.2.3.3 Reactions with hydrogen and water
2.2.3.4 Reaction of alkali metals with graphite and carbon bearing materials
2.2.3.5 Mutual interactions between dissolved impurities in liquid alkali metals
2.3 Heavy liquid metal coolants
2.3.1 Production of lead, bismuth metals, and LBE and Pb–Li alloys
2.3.2 Reactions of lead, bismuth, and LBE with air, oxygen, hydrogen, and water
2.3.3 Reactions of Pb–Li alloys with oxygen, water vapor, hydrogen, and nitrogen
2.4 Solubility of metallic and nonmetallic species in liquid metals
2.5 Kinetics of precipitation and dissolution of solutes in liquid metal systems
2.5.1 Kinetics of precipitation of solutes in liquid sodium systems
2.5.2 Kinetics of dissolution of solutes in liquid metals
2.5.2.1 Dissolution of sodium oxide into liquid sodium
2.5.2.2 Dissolution of sodium hydroxide into liquid sodium
2.5.2.3 Dissolution of PbO in liquid lead and LBE
References
3 - Handling and operations of liquid metal systems
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Handling alkali metals
3.2.1 Handling sodium metal
3.2.2 Handling lithium metal
3.2.3 Handling NaK alloy
3.2.4 Storage of alkali metals
3.3 Handling Pb, LBE, and Pb-Li eutectic alloy
3.4 Purification of liquid metals
3.4.1 Purification of liquid metal circuits
3.4.1.1 Filtration
3.4.1.2 Cold trapping
3.4.1.3 Hot trapping
3.4.1.4 Controlling the concentration of the dissolved oxygen in heavy liquid metals by equilibrating with a solid or gas phase source
Control by equilibration with gas phase sources
Control by equilibration with solid PbO source
Control by electrochemical oxygen pumping
3.4.2 Removal of radioactive impurity elements from liquid metal coolants
3.4.2.1 Removal of tritium from liquid lithium circuits
3.4.2.2 Nuclide traps for liquid sodium coolant
3.4.2.3 Removal of polonium from lead and LBE coolants
3.5 Chemical characterization of liquid metal coolants
3.5.1 Samplers for liquid metal systems
3.5.1.1 Samplers for liquid alkali metals
Samplers for use in the secondary sodium circuits of FBRs and experimental loops
Samplers for use in the primary sodium circuits of FBRs
3.5.1.2 Samplers for use in heavy liquid metal circuits
3.5.2 Chemical analysis of impurities in alkali metals
3.5.3 Chemical analysis of impurities in heavy liquid metals
3.6 Alkali metal fires
3.6.1 Sodium fires
3.6.1.1 Sodium pool fires [133,134,139–141]
3.6.1.2 Sodium spray fires [134,151–155]
3.6.2 Lithium fires
3.7 Methods of extinguishing alkali metal fires
3.8 Disposal of sodium
3.8.1 Disposal of small quantities of sodium and the residual sodium from the components retrieved from sodium systems or during ...
3.8.1.1 Disposal of sodium by reacting with water
3.8.1.2 Disposal of residual sodium by using alcohols
3.8.1.3 Removal of residual sodium by N2O and water vapor / gas phase mixtures
3.8.2 Methods to dispose sodium containing solid wastes and radioactivity
3.8.3 Disposal of very large quantities of sodium
3.9 Regeneration of cold traps of sodium systems
References
4 - Pumps and instruments for liquid metal coolant circuits
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Pumps for liquid metal circuits
4.2.1 Centrifugal pumps
4.2.2 Electromagnetic pumps
4.2.2.1 Electromagnetic conduction pumps
DC conduction pump
AC conduction pumps
4.2.2.2 Electromagnetic induction pumps
Flat linear induction pump (FLIP)
Annular linear induction pump (ALIP)
Flow-through ALIP
Reflux-type ALIP
4.2.2.3 Factors influencing the choice of electromagnetic pumps
4.3 Level measurements in liquid metal systems
4.3.1 Conductivity-based level probes
4.3.1.1 Discrete-level probes
4.3.1.2 Continuous level probes
4.3.2 Level probes based on principles of induction
4.3.2.1 Continuous level probes
4.3.2.2 Discrete-level probes
4.3.2.3 Ex-vessel level probes
4.4 Flow measurements in liquid metal circuits
4.4.1 Methods based on electromagnetic principles
4.4.1.1 Measurements of liquid metal flow in small diameter pipes
Permanent magnet flow meters (PMFM)
Lorenz force velocimeter
4.4.1.2 Flow measurements in large diameter pipes
Bypass type permanent magnet flow meter
Probe-type permanent magnet flow meter
Side wall flow meter [60]
Eddy-current flow meter or flux distortion flow meter
4.4.2 Flow meters based on ultrasonic principles [45,73–77]
4.4.2.1 Ultrasonic Doppler-velocimetry based flow meters
4.4.2.2 Transit time based ultrasonic flow meters
4.5 Viewing of components immersed in liquid metals
4.5.1 Design of ultrasonic transducers for use in liquid metal circuits and their general characteristics
4.5.2 Characteristics of an ultrasonic sound wave generated from piezoelectric discs
4.5.3 Resolution in ultrasonic imaging of components immersed in liquid metals
4.5.3.1 Axial resolution
4.5.3.2 Lateral resolution
4.5.4 Ultrasonic scanning system for FBRs
4.6 Detectors for liquid metal leaks
4.6.1 Wire type leak detectors
4.6.2 Sandwich and multilayer type leak detectors [108–111]
4.6.3 Spark-plug type leak detectors
4.6.4 Mutual inductance type leak detectors
4.6.5 Fibre optics-based leak detectors
4.6.6 Sodium-to-gas leak detectors
4.6.6.1 Smoke detectors
4.6.6.2 Sodium ionization detector (SID)
4.6.6.3 Sensor based on sodium ion conducting solid electrolytes
4.6.6.4 Sampling and chemical analysis of aerosols containing sodium bearing species
4.7 On-line impurity monitors for liquid metal coolants
4.7.1 Impurity monitors for liquid sodium systems
4.7.1.1 Plugging indicator
4.7.1.2 Resistivity meter
4.7.1.3 Monitors for online measurement of hydrogen in sodium circuits
Monitors for measuring hydrogen dissolved in liquid sodium
Monitors operating in dynamic mode
Monitors operating in equilibrium mode
Monitors for measuring hydrogen in argon cover gas
4.7.1.4 Monitors for online measurement of carbon levels in liquid sodium
4.7.1.4.1 Diffusion based meters for online monitoring of carbon in sodium
United Nuclear Corporation (UNC) carbon meter
Harwell, HEDL and ANL carbon meters
4.7.1.4.2 Electrochemical carbon meters
Electrochemical carbon meters using molten carbonate electrolytes
Carbon meters using solid-oxide electrolyte with either CO+CO2 mixture or CO2
4.7.1.5 On-line monitors for measuring dissolved oxygen in sodium
4.7.2 Monitors for lithium circuits
4.7.3 Monitors for liquid Pb-17Li alloy circuits
4.7.4 Oxygen monitors for heavy liquid metal coolant circuits [220–224]
References
5 - Corrosion and mass transfer in liquid metal systems
5.1 Introduction
5.2 General factors that determine corrosion and mass transfer of structural materials in liquid metal systems
5.2.1 Solubility of the components of the structural materials in liquid metals
5.2.2 Role of the dissolved nonmetallic elements in corrosion and mass transfer
5.2.3 Influence of the liquid metal flow velocity and position of the corroding section in the hot leg
5.3 Corrosion and mass transfer in liquid sodium systems
5.3.1 Solubility of alloying components of structural steels and nonmetallic impurities in liquid sodium
5.3.2 Thermochemical aspects of Na–M–O systems (M=alloying elements of structural materials) and their influence on corrosion mec ...
5.3.3 Carbon transport in sodium systems
5.4 Corrosion and mass transfer in liquid lithium systems
5.4.1 Corrosion of steels
5.4.2 Corrosion of vanadium alloys
5.5 Corrosion in liquid lead and lead-bismuth eutectic systems
5.5.1 Corrosion by direct dissolution
5.5.2 Corrosion under oxidizing conditions
5.5.3 Erosion-corrosion
5.5.4 Mitigation of corrosion
5.6 Corrosion in liquid lead-lithium eutectic systems
5.6.1 Corrosion of austenitic stainless steels by lead-lithium alloys
5.6.2 Corrosion of reduced activity ferritic-martensitic (RAFM) steels
5.7 Wetting of structural materials by liquid metals
5.7.1 Wetting by liquid alkali metals
5.7.2 Wetting by lead-lithium alloy
5.7.3 Wetting by Pb and LBE alloys
References
Epilogue
1 Liquid sodium systems
2 Liquid lithium systems
3 Heavy liquid metal coolants (Pb, Pb-Li and LBE)
1: Radial density function
Reference
2: Ferromagnetic materials
References
3: Basics of heat transfer by
liquid metals
A3.1 Modes of heat transfer
A3.2 Heat transfer from a hot surface to a flowing fluid
A3.2.1 Velocity and temperature boundary layers at the interface between a solid and flowing fluid
A3.2.2 Heat transfer coefficient in terms of dimensionless numbers
References
General References on Heat Transfer
4: Thermochemical aspects
of dissolution of solutes in liquid
metals
References
5: Kinetics of precipitation of
solutes from solutions
A5.1 Solubility and supersaturation
A5.2 Precipitation
A5.2.1 Nucleation
A5.2.2 Crystal growth process
A5.2.2.1 Diffusion
A5.2.2.2 Integration
A5.2.3 Rate of crystallization
References
6: Magnetic effects of current,
inductance, and eddy currents
A6.1 Magnetic effects of current
A6.2 Inductance
A6.2.1 Self-inductance
A6.2.2 Mutual Inductance
A6.2.3 Induction, eddy currents, and depth of penetration
Reference
7: Propagation of sound waves
through matter
A7.1 Characteristics of sound waves
A7.2 Reflection and refraction of sound waves
A7.3 Attenuation of the sound waves
A7.4 Acoustic impedance
References
8: Piezoelectricity and
piezoelectric materials
A8.1 Structure and characteristics of piezoelectric materials
A8.2 Poling of ferroelectric materials and hysteresis loop
A8.3 Piezoelectric properties of different materials
Reference
General references
9: Solid electrolytes
A9.1 Electrical conductivity of inorganic solids
A9.2 Solid electrolytes
A9.2.1 Beta-aluminas
A9.2.2 Oxide-ion conducting solid electrolytes with fluorite structure
A9.2.3 Hydride-ion conducting hydride-halide based electrolytes
A9.3 Dependence of conductivity of the solid electrolytes on the partial pressure/activity of the conducting species in the surr ...
A9.4 EMF cells based on solid electrolytes as chemical sensors
References
General References on solid electrolytes
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
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