Routledge Handbook of Non-Violent Extremism: Groups, Perspectives and New Debates

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Illustrations
Contributors
Foreword
Preface
Introduction: Why Do We Need a Handbook On Non-Violent Forms of Extremism?
Introduction
Vocal Or Non-Violent Extremism: A Continuum From Radicalisation to Terrorism
Radicalisation
Extremism
Terrorism
Vocal Or Non-Violent Extremism: A New Research Agenda
Non-violent Extremism: A Firewall Or Conveyor Belt to Violent Extremism in the 21st Century?
The Conceptual Debate
The Policy Debate
The Need for a Handbook On Non-Violent Extremism
Notes
References
Part 1 Between Extremisms: Violence and Non-Violence Across Multiple Ideologies
1 Sticky Ideologies and Non-Violent Heterodox Politics
Introduction
Conspiratorial Narratives and Anti-Government Movements
Styles of Reasoning
Methodology: “Order at All Points” in Investigative Digital Ethnography
Anti-vax and the Anti-Government Rage Register
Pilot Data: Facebook, Reddit and Instagram
Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgement
Notes
References
2 “Screw Your Optics”: The Ambivalent Role of Violence in Islamist and Far-Right Extremism
The Policy and Research Landscape Around “Non-Violent Extremism”
Policy Context
Research Debates
Terminological Criticism
Non-violent Extremism as a Precursor of Violent Extremism?
Safety Valve
Islamism and “Non-Violent Extremism”
Ideological Distinction Between “Violent” and “Non-Violent” Islamist Extremist Groups
Pathways Between Violence and Non-Violence
Case Study: Hizb-Ut-Tahrir
The Far-Right and “Non-Violent Extremism”
“Post-Organisational” Far-Right Extremism
Digital Spaces: Blurring the Lines Between Non-Violent and Violent Extremism On the Far Right
Case Study: Generation Identity
Conclusion
Notes
References
3 “Boys Who Hate Girls, Who Hate Boys, Who Hate Girls”: A Quantitative Exploration of the Relationship Between Misogyny, …
Introduction
Understanding Contemporary Misogyny
A Brief History of Incels
Radicalisation in the Incel Community
Incel Ideology
Method
Factor Analysis
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Part 2 ‘Old’ and ‘New’ Religious Extremisms: Non-Violent Islamist, Buddhist and Hindu Movements
4 When Ideology Is All That Matters!: Exploring Non-Violent Islamism Through Fetullah Gülen and Taqiuddin An-Nabhani
Introduction
An-Nabhani and Gülen: Religious Purism and the Struggle Against Sin
The Clash of Civilizations
When Purity Attracts Persecutions: Hizb Ut-Tahrir
Discipline as a Social Good: Gulen’s Relationship With Authorities
“Intellectual Islamists”: A Methodology Based On Education
Hizb Ut-Tahrir: The Educator of the Masses
The Impact of Education On the Internal Dimension: The Hizbies
The Impact of Education On the External Dimension: Hizb Ut-Tahrir’s Three-Fold Strategy
Education and Methodology: The Hizmet’s Strategy
Conclusion
Notes
References
5 The Tabligh Jama’at and Its Non-Violent Resoluteness
Introduction
A Brief Overview of the History of the Tabligh Jama’at
Extremism
Non-violent Extremism
Tabligh Jama’at’s Ideology: A Non-Violent Approach to Remaking the World
Conclusion: The Tabligh Jama’at and Its Non-Violent Resoluteness
Note
References
6 Reaction, Restoration, and the Return of Alpha-Islam: Wahhabism From Premodern Ideas to Postmodern Identities
Introduction: The Vicissitudes of a Contentious Term
Epistemic Commitments in Wahhabi Theology: The (R)age of the Righteous
Hanbalism On Steroids: The Wahhabi “New Deal”
A Form of Fundamentalism: Surveillance Theology and the Psychosocial Dynamics of Wahhabism
Social Identities, “Retrotopian” Socialization, and the Construction of Counterculture
Ideational Contestations Between Wahhabism and Rival Forms of Salafism: The Recurrent Trichotomy
Wahhabis Versus Salafis: Seven Differentiators
Madkhalis and Their Enemies: Contending Extremisms
Concluding Thoughts: Wither Wahhabism?
Notes
References
7 The New Landscape of Extremism and Its Intersection With Political Islamists in Turkey
Introduction
Context: The Rise of Extremism in Turkey
Revival of Islamist Extremism in Turkey
Transition Within Violent and Non-Violent Groups
Ideology and Organizational Structures
Hizbullah and Hüda-Par
The Islamic Great Eastern Raiders Front (IBDA-C)
The Malatyalilar Group
Humanitarian Relief Foundation (Insani Yardim Vakfi – IHH)
Hizb Ut-Tahrir
Methods and Use of Violence in Turkish Islamist Extremist Groups
Hizbullah and Hüda-Par
The Islamic Great Eastern Raiders Front (IBDA-C)
The Malatyalilar Group
Humanitarian Relief Foundation (Insani Yardim Vakfi – IHH)
Hizb Ut-Tahrir
The Rise of a New Generation Ultra-Nationalist Islamist Groups
Youth Clubs and Hearths
Conclusion
Note
References
8 The Muslim Brotherhood in the West: Firewall Or Conveyor Belt? Insights From the British Debate
What Is the Muslim Brotherhood in the West?
The Western Muslim Brotherhood and Radicalization
The Brotherhood as Firewall
The Brotherhood as Conveyor Belt
The “Mood Music” Argument
Victimhood
Justification of Violence
Conclusion
Notes
References
9 Nativist Expressions of Non-Violent Extremism in Malaysia: The Case of Ikatan Muslimin Malaysia (ISMA: Muslim Solidarity …
Introduction
ISMA: A Brief Background
Global Underpinnings of Non-Violent Islamist Extremism in Southeast Asia
From Global to Local: Malaysia’s Islamist Setting
Non-Violent Islamist Extremism in a Multi-Cultural Nation State: The Case of Contemporary Malaysia
ISMA: Malay-Muslim Activism in a Multi-Cultural Nation State
Radicalisation of ISMA’s Discourse in the Post-Millennial Age
Can ISMA’s Non-Violence Be Trusted?
Concluding Remarks
Notes
References
10 Non-Violent Salafist Political Engagement: Comparing Egypt’s Al-Nour Party With Kuwait’s Islamic Salafi Alliance
Introduction
Approaches to Salafism
Evolution and Characteristics
The “Arab Spring” and Its Aftermath
Dawa/al-Nour’s Experiment With Politics and Decline
Dancing With the Devil
ISA’s Response to Kuwaiti Protests and Its Decline
Conclusion
References
11 Debating Islamism as an Expression of Political Islam
Introduction
The Debate On Islamism
Perspectives On Islamism
Islamism vs. Salafism: The Origin
Usulism
Synergies Between Islamism, Salafism, and Usulism
Salafism and Islamism: The Case of Shariat Sanglaji of Iran
Neo-Islamism
Conclusion
Notes
References
12 Enraged Buddhism: Violent, Non-Violent and “Not-Violent” Extremism in Myanmar
A Violent Buddhist Mob – Is This a Thing?
Violence, Non-Violence and “Not-Violence”: Some Definitions
Non-violence: Monks and the 2007 Saffron Revolution
Violence and Not-Violence: Monks and the Campaign Against the Rohingya
Liminal Spaces: Monks as Fire Starters
Conclusion
Notes
References
13 Buddhist Constructions as a Tool of Non-Violent Extremism in Post-Conflict Sri Lanka
Introduction
Eruption of Violent Extremism in Post-Independent Sri Lanka
The Colonial Legacy of Sinhalese Buddhist Nationalism
Youth Discontent as a Driver of Violent Extremism Against State
Sangha as Enablers of Violent Extremism
The Inconspicuous Rise of Non-Violent Extremism in the Post-Conflict Context
Reinforcement of Singular Sinhalese Buddhist Historical Narratives
Buddhist Temples as Sites of Dominance
The Nexus Between the Sangha and Military
Concluding Remarks
Notes
References
14 Current Trends in Buddhist Extremism and Anti-Muslim Ideology: A Study of Sri Lanka
Introduction
Contextualising Buddhist Extremism in Sri Lanka
The Contested Position of Islam in Sri Lanka
Overview of Buddhist Extremist Violence and Non-Violence in Sri Lanka
Discussion
Conclusion
Bibliography
Part 3 Far-Right Extremism: Non-Violence Among Movements On the Exclusionary Right
15 Barriers to Violence Activism On the UK Far Right: The Case of the (Democratic) Football Lads Alliance
Introduction
Purely Strategic? Frames of Non-Violence Within the Contemporary UK Far Right
Rhetorical Commitments to Non-Violence: DFLA’s Founding Statement, Public Facebook Page and Early Demonstrations
Testing Commitments to Non-Violence: The DFLA Schism, Brushes With the Established UK Far Right and Later Demonstrations
Content Analysis: Rhetorical Constructions of Non-Violence in the DFLA
Conclusions and Recommendations
Notes
Bibliography
16 The Appeal of the New Far Right in the United Kingdom: A Look Inside the New Far-Right Recruitment Pool
Fascism and the New Far Right
Origins, Ideologies, and Methodologies of Three New Far-Right Groups
For Britain Movement
The DFLA
PEGIDA UK
Methodology
Comparative Analysis of Demographics: The For Britain Movement, the DFLA, and PEGIDA UK
Gender
Education Level
Sexuality
Is There a Link Between These Demographics and Violence?
The Path Towards Violence and the Role of Conspiracy Theories
The Link Between Hypermasculinity, Homophobia, and Violence
Conclusion
Notes
References
17 Weaponising the Alliance for the Unity of Romanians (AUR): Novelties and Continuums in Romania’s Far-Right Political ...
Introduction
Introducing AUR: Origins, Ideology & Modus Operandi
Categorizing AUR: Recognizing Conceptual Crossroads
AUR’s Historical Revisionism: Assembling Romanian Extremism From the Past
AUR’s Campaign Tactics: From Soccer to Politics Via Populism
Towards an AUR “Winning Strategy”? From Dacian Gold to Political Gold
Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
18 Far-Right Nationalist Politics in Turkey: Division of the Nationalist Camp Between the MHP and the Good Party
Introduction
Cleavage Theory
Socio-Political Cleavages and Right-Wing Nationalism in Turkey
An Overview and Ideological Background of the MHP as the Main Actor of Far Right
Rethinking Far-Right Nationalism in Turkey: Cleavages, Alliances, and Emergence of the Good Party as a New Actor
Struggle to Represent the “Cause” of Turkish Nationalism: Shifts Between Non-Violence and Violence
Concluding Remarks
Notes
References
19 The Greek White Power Music Scene: Feeding Extremism With Lyrics
Introduction
Defining the Extreme Right
Defining Extreme-Right Subcultures
White Power Music
Historical Review of the Greek White Power Music
Methodology
Exploring the Data
Discussion: How Non-Violent Rhetoric Can Foster Violent Action
Conclusion
Notes
References
20 The Identitarian Movement and Its Contemporary Manifestations
Introduction
The Origins of Identitarianism and Spread to Europe and Beyond
Origins and Precursors of the IM
Metapolitics and Traditionalism
The Key Role of the Nouvelle Droite
The French Ethnonationalist Right
Key Contemporary IM Thinkers
A Summary of Key IM Ideas
Conclusion
Note
Bibliography
21 Far-Right PEGIDA: Non-Violent Protest and the Blurred Lines Between the Radical and Extreme Right
Introduction
The “Patriotic Europeans”: PEGIDA’s Emergence and Persistence
PEGIDA as “Non-Violent Resistance”: Memories of the “Peaceful Revolution”
Extremist Features in PEGIDA Discourse Despite Its Support for Democracy
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Notes
References
22 Metapolitics and the Us Far Right: On the “Non-Violent” Approach to Alt-Right Social Transformation
Introduction
Antonio Gramsci’s Concept of Metapolitics
The Struggle for Hegemony Within Civil Society
New Right Metapolitics
New Right Metapolitics Migrates to America
Trump and the Alt-Right: Dialectical Metapolitics
Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
23 Anti-Gender Campaigns as a Threat to Liberal Democracy
Introduction
The Anti-Gender Movement: Ultra-Conservative Ideology and Transnational Cooperation
Discursive Strategies of the Anti-Gender Movement
Can Civil Society Be Dangerous to Democracy?
Conclusions
Notes
References
Part 4 Post-Modern Extremisms?: Non-Violent Left-Wing, Feminist and Environmental Movements Since the 1970s
24 The Case of DiEM25: A Unique Transnational Political Movement in 21st-Century European Politics
Introduction
Exploring the DIEM25 Through the Existing Literature
Defining DiEM25 as a “Populist Radical Left” Transnational Movement
The Construction of a Transnational People of Europe
Radical Left Ideology in Europe
The Complexity of Being Both “Transnational” and “Populist” at the Same Time
The Radical Left Being Closer to the Mainstream Parties in Europe
The Inability to Offer a Clearly Distinctive Narrative That Can Compete With the Radical Right
The Future of Populist Radical Left: Transnational Political Movements in Europe
Notes
References
25 Left-Wing Radicalism in Australia: The Complexities of the Radical Left’s (Non)Violent Struggle Against Fascism
Introduction
Reactive Antifascism?
The Role of Violence
Case Studies
Study 1: The Offline Struggle of the Radical Left Against the Far Right
Study 2: Australian Antifa Online
Conclusion
Notes
References
26 Overthrowing the Capitalist Social Order: The Forgotten Extremism of the British Women’s Movement
Introduction
The WLM, Feminism and Non-Violence
Methodology
Histories of UBI and the Left
The Women’s Movement and Demands for Economic Liberation
Two Paths: Reform Or Revolution
Conclusion
Note
Bibliography
27 Becoming Through Non-Violent Resistance: The Rise of Feminist Consciousness in Chile
Introduction
Theories of Consciousness-Raising and Becoming a Feminist
Feminism and the Issue of Non-Violence
Becoming a Feminist Through Non-Violent Resistance
A Brief History of the Recent Feminist Movement in Chile
Anti-neoliberalism at the Heart of the Movement
Resisting Sate’s Violence
Conclusion
Notes
References
28 The Degrowth Movement in France: From the Edges to the Centre of the Ecological Debate
Introduction
Intellectual Sources and Development of the Degrowth Movement
The Ideology of the Degrowth Movement
Strategies for a Degrowth Society
Degrowth as a Non-Violent Radical Movement
Conclusion
Notes
References
29 A Spatial Account of Non-Violent Environmental Extremism in Australia
Introduction
Non-violent Environmental Extremism
A Case Study of Australian Environmental Movements
Anti-protest
Contemporary Environment Movements
“Movements of Crisis”
Distributed, Participatory Engagement
Collective, Peaceful, Public Protest
Environmentalism as Extremism
Subverting the Spatialised Order
Conclusions
References
30 “Animals and the Earth Can’t Wait – Get Off Your Ass and Fight!”: Animal Liberation Front Vigilantism in the Era of …
Introduction
Context
History
Organizational Structure
Goals and Tactics
Research Method
Collection of Online Data
Coding
Vigilantism, Political Opportunity Structure and the ALF
Vigilantism as a Response to Structural Injustice
Political Opportunity Structure
Analysis
Who Is the Real Extremist?
For the Wild
“There’s No Justice, There’s Just Us”
Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
31 The Phoney War?: Radical Environmentalists, Animal Rights Activists and Direct Action
Introduction
Political Classifications: A Challenge
The Mechanics of Environmental Activism: Action Not Words
Direct Action as an Organising Principle
A New Political Paradigm? The Ticking Clock
Extinction Rebellion: Overview and Analysis
Conclusions
Note
Bibliography
32 “The Great Refusal”: Radical Environmental Resistance Against Contemporary Ecological Breakdown
Introduction
History, Nature and Tactics of REA Movements
Radical Environmentalism
Disrupting the Present
Methodology
Results
Post-anthropocentric Sensibilities
Bodies On the Line
Discussion
“The Great Refusal”: Crying “No!” to the Existing Order
Conclusion
Notes
References
Conclusion: Key Findings, Lessons Learnt and Future Avenues of Research
Introduction
Non-violent Extremism(s) at a Glance
Lessons Learnt
Moving Beyond Islamist Extremism: Studying Non-Violent Extremism in the Round
Extremism, Radicalisation and Terrorism as Overlapping Concepts
Barriers to Political Violence
Post-organisational Extremist Movements – Antechambers of Violent Extremism?
Future Research
Notes
References
Index