Role of Essential Oils in the Management of COVID-19

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Main Authors
Co-Authors
PART I: Evolution, Pathogenesis, Pathophysiology, and Treatment of COVID-19
1 Olfactory Aromatherapy vs COVID-19: A Systematic Review
1.1 Introduction
References
2 Epidemiology Respiratory Infections: Types, Transmission, and Risks Associated with Co-infections
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Epidemiology of Respiratory Infections
2.3 Types of Respiratory Infections
2.3.1 Upper Respiratory Tract Infections (URTIs)
2.3.2 Lower Respiratory Tract Infections (LRTIs)
2.4 Transmission of Human Respiratory Viruses
2.5 Respiratory Tract-Based Co-infections
2.5.1 Simultaneous Virus Infections or Viral Interference
2.5.2 Simultaneous Viral-Bacterial Infections
2.6 Symptomatic vs. Asymptomatic Infections
References
3 Origin, Morphology, Genome Organization, Growth, Replication, and Pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Origin and Evolution of SARS-CoV-2
3.3 In vitro and in vivo Models for SARS-CoV-2
3.4 Morphology of Coronavirus
3.5 Mutations in SARS-CoV-2 Spike
3.6 Cellular Invasion and Proliferation of SARS-CoV-2
3.7 Pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2
3.8 COVID-19 (SARS Coronavirus 2) Pathophysiology (ARDS)
3.9 COVID-19 Transmission with Variation in Climatic Conditions
References
4 Epidemiology, Clinical Manifestations, Diagnostic Approaches, and Preventive Measures for COVID-19
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Epidemiology of COVID-19
4.3 Clinical Manifestations
4.4 Laboratory and Radiologic Characteristics
4.5 Pathological Studies
4.6 Diagnostic Tools
4.7 Therapeutics, Sanitization, Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), and Life Support Systems for the Prevention and Treatment of COVID-19
4.8 COVID-19 Vaccines
4.9 Biotechnological Interventions against COVID-19
4.9.1 DNA Science
4.9.2 Stem Cell Therapy
4.9.3 Nucleic Acid-Based Therapy
4.9.4 Transgenic Animals
4.9.5 Role of Enzymes Such as Proteolytic Enzymes
4.9.6 Bioinformatics
4.9.7 Cell-based Models
4.9.8 Organoids
References
5 Role of Drug Repurposing and Natural Products
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Therapeutics under Investigation
5.3 Drug Repositioning for COVID-19 Treatment
5.3.1 Antimalarial Drugs
5.3.2 Antiviral Drugs
5.3.3 Antibiotics
5.3.4 Interferons
5.3.5 Corticosteroids
5.4 Immunotherapy (Passive)
5.4.1 Convalescent Plasma Transfusion
5.4.2 Monoclonal Antibodies
5.5 Vaccines
5.6 Natural Products
5.6.1 Role of Essential Oils in Treatment of COVID-19
5.6.2 Marine-Based Natural Products
5.7 Polymeric Nanoparticles
References
6 Host Immune Response vs. COVID-19
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Host Innate Non-Specific Response against Viral Infections
6.3 Host Immune Response vs COVID-19 Infection
6.4 COVID-19-Associated Hyper-inflammation
6.5 Immunomodulatory Therapy for COVID-19
6.6 Anti-TNF Treatment and Other Approaches to Treat COVID-19
6.7 SARS-CoV-2-Specific T-Cell Immunity
6.8 B-Cell Immunity against COVID-19
6.9 Biotechnological Approaches for Treatment of COVID-19
6.9.1 Role of Animal Biotechnology
6.9.2 Role of Plant Biotechnology
References
7 Effect of COVID-19 on Different Organ Systems
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Cardiovascular Complications Associated with COVID-19
7.2.1 Cardiac Implications for COVID-19 Patients and Its Pathogenic Considerations
7.2.2 Cardiovascular Impact of COVID-19 Infection
7.2.2.1 Myocardial Damage and Inflammation of the Heart Muscle in COVID-19
7.2.2.2 Acute Myocardial Infarction
7.2.2.3 Cardiac Involvement of COVID-19 Mainly Acute Heart Failure and Cardiomyopathy
7.2.2.4 Arrhythmia in COVID-19
7.2.2.5 Venous Thromboembolic Events in COVID-19 Patients
7.2.2.6 Potential Drug-Drug Interactions in COVID-19 Patients
7.2.3 COVID-19 in the Heart and the Lungs (Notch)
7.2.3.1 COVID-19 and the Heart
7.2.3.2 Cardiovascular Drugs and COVID-19
7.3 COVID-19 and Kidney Damage
7.4 Liver vs COVID-19
7.5 COVID-19 Associated Gastrointestinal Tract Complications
7.6 Pulmonary Fibrosis in COVID-19 Patients
7.6.1 Role of Transforming Growth Factor-beta in SARS-Stimulated Fibrosis of Lungs
7.6.1.1 Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β) Signaling Pathway
7.6.1.2 The Impact of TGF-β Activation on Lung Fibrosis
7.6.1.3 Transforming Growth Factor-beta and SARS-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis
7.6.2 Possible Role of ACE2/Angiotensin II in Lung Injury Caused by SARS
7.6.3 Possible Pathways of SARS-Mediated Pulmonary Fibrosis
7.7 Organ Cross-talk
7.8 CNS Complications Associated with SARS-CoV-2
7.8.1 Possible Mechanisms of Neurological Complications Caused by SARS-CoV-2
7.8.2 Psychosocial Impact of COVID-19
7.8.2.1 Psychiatric Manifestations of COVID-19
7.8.3 Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19 and Their Treatment
7.9 COVID-19 and Its Systemic Effects
7.9.1 Cytokine-Induced Damage
7.10 Role of Nanomedicine in COVID-19
References
PART II: Introduction to Essential Oils and Its Role in the Management of COVID-19
8 Essential Oil Chemistry vs. Aromatherapy
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Olfactory Aromatherapy (OA)
8.3 Chemical Composition of EOs
8.4 Sources and Chemical Composition
8.4.1 Terpene Hydrocarbons
8.4.2 Oxygenated Compounds
8.5 Production of EOs Using Plant Tissue Culture
References
9 Effect of Methods of Extraction on Chemical Composition of Essential Oils
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Methods of Extraction
9.3 Distillation-Based Extraction
9.3.1 Steam Distillation
9.3.2 Hydrodistillation
9.3.3 Hydrodiffusion
9.4 Solvent-Mediated Extraction
9.4.1 Solvent Extraction
9.4.2 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
9.4.3 Subcritical Water Extraction
9.4.4 Solvent-Free Microwave Extraction
9.5 Role of Plant Biotechnology in Essential Oil Production
References
10 Essential Oil Stability
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Possible Changes in Chemical Profiles of Essential Oils as well as Likely Effects
10.3 Factors Affecting Stability of EOs
10.3.1 Effect of Light
10.3.2 Effect of Temperature
10.3.3 Effect of Oxygen Availability
10.3.4 Presence of Metal Contaminants
10.3.5 Presence of Water Content
10.4 Chemical Composition and Structural Features
10.5 Encapsulation of Essential Oils via Nanoprecipitation Process
References
11 Quality Control of Essential Oils
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Analysis of Essential Oils
11.2.1 Chromatographic Characterization of Essential Oils
11.2.1.1 Gas Chromatography
11.2.1.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Profile of Essential Oils
11.2.1.3 Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry
11.3 Characterization of Essential Oils Produced via Plant Tissue Culture
11.4 Chemical Characterization of Essential Oil Encapsulated by Nanoprecipitation Method
References
12 Mechanism of Action of Essential Oils as well as Its Components
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Mechanism of Action of EOs
12.3 Nanoparticles vs. Essential Oils (Improved Biological Property) Production by Plants Propagated in in vitro Cultures
References
13 Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils in the Vapor Phase
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Antimicrobial Effects of Essential Oils in the Gaseous Phase
13.3 Antibacterial Effects of Essential Oils in Liquid as well as Gaseous Phases
13.4 Antimicrobial Potential of Essential Oil-Based Nanoemulsions
13.4.1 Nanotechnology and Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils
13.5 In Vitro Antifungal Effects of EO Vapors
13.6 Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Effects of Vapors of EOs
13.6.1 Inverted Petri Dish
13.6.2 EO Vapor Phase Development Using Box Made of Glass or Plastic
13.6.3 Chamber with Seven Wells
13.6.4 Agar Plug Vapor-Phase Assay
13.7 Application of Essential Oil Vapors in Food Industry
References
14 Antibacterial Interactions between EOs and Currently Employed Antibiotics
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Role of Essential Oils as Antibacterial Agents
14.3 Antibacterial Interactions between EO Components and Currently Employed Antibiotics
14.4 COVID-19 Treatment with Essential Oils
14.5 In silico Studies
14.6 Effect of Heat Followed by EO Treatment
14.7 Role of Geranium and Lemon EOs vs. ACE2 Inhibitory Effects
14.7.1 Role of Lemon and Geranium EOs in COVID-19
14.8 Role of EO-Loaded Nanocarrier in COVID-19
14.9 Role of Nanotechnology in Antibacterial Potential of EOs
14.10 EO-Based Food Supplement
References
15 Antibacterial Mechanism of Action of Essential Oils
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Essential Oils vs Antibiotics
15.3 Mechanism of Actions of Essential Oils
15.4 Essential Oil Composition-Based Mechanism of Action
15.5 Effect of Essential Oil on Bacterial Cell Membrane
15.6 Microbial Toxins and Membrane Proteins vs Essential Oils
15.7 Fatty Acid Synthesis vs. Essential Oil
15.8 Effect of Essential Oils on Intracellular ATP Production in Microbial Cell
15.9 Effect of Essential Oil on the Production of Metabolites in Microbial Cell
15.10 Cell Morphology vs. Essential Oils
15.11 Anti-Quorum-Sensing Effects of Essential Oils
15.12 Antibacterial Potential of Essential Oil in Vapor Phase
15.13 Nanotechnology vs. Antibacterial Activity of EOs
References
16 Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant, and Immunomodulatory Effects of EOs
16.1 Introduction
16.2 In vitro Activity of Essential Oils
16.3 In vivo Activity of Essential Oils
16.4 Effects of Essential Oil on Human Health
16.5 Role of Essential Oils in Reducing Inflammation
16.5.1 Effects of Essential Oil on Arachidonic Acid Metabolism
16.5.2 Protective Effects of Essential Oils on Cytokines Production
16.5.3 The Role of Essential Oils and Their Components in Affecting Genes Responsible for the Expression of Proinflammatory Gene
16.6 Nanoencapsulation of Essential Oils
16.7 Antioxidant Proprieties of EO
References
17 Anticancer Properties of Essential Oils
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Antimutagenic Properties of the Essential Oils
17.3 Antiproliferative Properties of Essential Oils
17.4 Radical Scavenging Activity of EO
17.5 Cancerous Cells vs. Essential Oils
17.6 Nanoencapsulation of Essential Oil Extracts Using Natural Polymers
References
18 Effects of Essential Oils on CNS
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Influence of EOs on Voltage-Gated Na Channels as well as GABAergic Pathway
18.3 Antiepileptic Effects of EOs
18.4 Anxiolytic Effects of Essential Oils
18.5 Role of Essential Oils in Neurodegenerative Disorders
18.6 Effects of Essential Oils on T-type Calcium Channels
18.7 Essential Oils Acting on CNS
18.7.1 Lavandula angustifolia
18.7.2 Achillea wilhelmsii
18.7.3 Acorus gramineus
18.7.4 Agarwood
18.7.5 Aloysia citrodora
18.7.6 Alpinia zerumbet
18.7.7 Artemisia EO
18.7.8 Asarum heterotropoides (Wild Ginger)
18.7.9 Cananga odorata (Ylang-Ylang Essential Oil)
18.7.10 Chamaecyparis obtuse
18.7.11 Citrus aurantium (Lemon Oil)
18.7.12 Citrus bergamia (Bergamot)
18.7.13 Coriander Volatile Oil
18.7.14 Croton conduplicatus
18.7.15 Cymbopogon citratus
18.7.16 Dennettia tripetala
18.7.17 Dysphania graveolens
18.7.18 Eugenia uniflora
18.7.19 German chamomile
18.7.20 Hyptis martiusii
18.7.21 Juniperus virginiana
18.7.22 Lantana camara
18.7.23 Lavender-Based Perfumes and EOs
18.7.24 Lippia alba (False-Melissa)
18.7.25 Melissa officinalis
18.7.26 Nigella sativa
18.7.27 O. basilicum
18.7.28 P. guineense
18.7.29 Pelargonium roseum
18.7.30 Peppermint (Mentha piperita)
18.7.31 Piper guineense
18.7.32 Pistacia integerrima
18.7.33 Salvia sclarea (clary)
18.7.34 Spiranthera odoratissima
18.7.35 SuHeXiang Wan (Storax pill)
18.7.36 Tugetes minute
18.7.37 Valerian officinalis
18.7.38 Sideritis Flowering Plants
18.8 Effect of EO Components on CNS
18.8.1 (+)-Limonene and s-Limonene
18.8.2 (+)-Dehydrofukinone
18.8.3 1,8-Cineole
18.8.4 Alpha(α)-Asarone
18.8.5 Bicyclic Ethers 1,8- and 1,4-Cineole
18.8.6 Bisabolol
18.8.7 Carvacrol
18.8.8 Carvacryl Acetate
18.8.9 Carvone
18.8.10 Cedrol
18.8.11 Methyl Jasmonate/cis-Jasmone
18.8.12 Dihydrocarvone and Thujone (Non-Terpene Constituents) as GABAA Receptor Antagonists
18.8.13 Estragole
18.8.14 Eugenol
18.8.15 Isopulegol
18.8.16 Linalool
18.8.17 Menthol
18.8.18 Methyleugenol
18.8.19 Natural Borneol [(+)-Borneol]
18.8.20 Nerolidol
18.8.21 Pine EO
18.8.22 Terpinen-4-ol
18.8.23 Thymol
18.9 Essential Oils Loaded in Nano- and Cyclodextrin-Based Systems
References
19 Olfactory Aromatherapy vs. Human Psychophysiological Activity
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Olfactory Aromatherapy and Psychological Interventions
19.3 EO vs. Human Psychophysiological Activity
19.4 Human Olfaction Process
19.5 EO Delivery Systems
19.6 Neuroprotective Effects of EO Inhalation on Brain EEG Activity and Psychological Abilities
19.7 Effect of Inhalation of EOs on Sympathetic as well as Parasympathetic Nerves
19.8 Brain vs. Biotechnology and Nanotechnology
19.9 Role of Inhalation of EOs in Depression
19.10 Antidepressant-Like Effects of EOs
19.11 Antidepressant Effects of EO Components
References
20 Essential Oils in the Treatment of Respiratory Tract Infections
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Advantages of EOs for Respiratory Infections
20.3 In vitro Antimicrobial effects of EOs
20.4 Antiviral Effects of EOs
20.5 The Role of EOs in Respiratory Infections
20.6 The Role of EO-Loaded Nanoparticles against Multidrug-Resistant Bacterial Strains
References
21 The Cardioprotective Effects of Essential Oils
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Role of EOs in Hypertension
21.2.1 Vasoconstriction Effects and Underlying Cellular Mechanisms
21.2.2 Cellular Mechanism of Vasodilation
21.2.3 The Effect of EOs on the Vascular Tone to Regulate the Heart Rate and Arterial Pressure
21.3 Vasodilator Effects of EOs
21.3.1 Allium macrostemon
21.3.2 Chrysopogon zizanioides
21.3.3 Croton argyrophylloides
21.3.4 Alpinia zerumbet
21.3.5 Asafoetida Oil
21.3.6 Aniba canelilla Bark
21.3.7 Citrus aurantium
21.3.8 Cymbopogon winterianus
21.3.9 Croton nepetaefolius
21.3.10 Ocimum gratissimum
21.3.11 Hyptis fruticose
21.3.12 Lippia alba
21.3.13 Mentha X— villosa
21.3.14 Nigella sativa
21.3.15 Nardostachyos radix
21.3.16 Ocimum micranthum
21.3.17 Pogostemon elsholtzioides
21.3.18 Protium heptaphyllum
21.3.19 Pectis brevipedunculata
21.3.20 Pistacia integerrima
21.3.21 Rosa damascene
21.4 The Role of EO Components in Vasodilation
21.4.1 Thymoquinone
21.4.2 Cinnamaldehyde
21.4.3 Cinnamic Acid
21.4.4 Cinnamyl Alcohol
21.4.5 α-Bisabolol
21.4.6 Carvacrol
21.4.7 Borneol
21.4.8 Carvone
21.4.9 Eugenol
21.4.10 1-Nitro-2-Phenylethane
21.4.11 Auraptene
21.4.12 Citral
21.4.13 Citronellol
21.4.14 Farnesene
21.4.15 Limonene
21.4.16 Linalool
21.4.17 Linalyl Acetate
21.4.18 Menthol
21.4.19 N-Butylidenephthalide
21.4.20 Rotundifolone
21.4.21 α-Terpineol
21.5 Vasoconstrictor Effects of Various EOs
21.5.1 Citrus bergamia
21.5.2 Croton zehntneri
21.5.3 Neryl Butyrate
21.6 EOs and Atherosclerosis
21.6.1 Onion and Garlic
21.6.2 Satureja khuzestanica
21.6.3 Artemisia species
21.6.4 Asian Plantain (Plantago asiatica)
21.6.5 Ocimum sanctum
21.6.6 Pinus koraiensis
21.6.7 Fenugreek Seed
21.6.8 Melissa officinalis
21.6.9 Nigella sativa
21.6.10 Citrus sp
21.6.11 Chios Mastic Gum (Derived from Pistacia lentiscus)
21.6.12 Dill (Anethum graveolens)
21.6.13 Korean Mint (Agastache rugosa)
21.7 Role of Biotechnology in Cardiovascular Complications
21.7.1 Stem Cell Therapy
21.7.2 Nanotechnology
References
22 Pharmacokinetics of Essentials Oils
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Pharmacokinetics and Bioavailability of an EO
22.3 Pharmacokinetic Parameters of EOs
22.3.1 Topical Absorption of EOs
22.3.2 EO Absorption via Oral Administration
22.3.3 EO Absorption via Pulmonary Route
22.3.4 Biotransformation of EOs
22.3.5 Pharmacokinetic Parameters of EOs
22.3.6 EO-Loaded Nanoparticles and Their Pharmacokinetic Studies
22.3.7 Elimination of EOs
22.3.7.1 Pulmonary Elimination
References
23 Hepatoprotective and Nephroprotective Effects of Essential Oils
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Hepatoprotective and Nephroprotective Effects of EOs
23.2.1 Mentha piperita
23.2.2 Citrus limon
23.2.3 Lavandula stoechas
23.2.4 Origanum majorana
23.2.5 Lavandula, Peppermint, and Melaleuca Oils
23.2.6 Cinnamomum verum
23.2.7 Pinus halepensis
23.2.8 Foeniculum vulgare
23.2.9 Salvia officinalis
23.2.10 Artemisia campestris
23.2.11 Syzygium aromaticum
23.2.12 Pituranthos chloranthus
23.2.13 Rosemary EO
23.2.14 Thymus vulgaris
23.2.15 Nepeta cataria
23.2.16 Fennel, Cumin and Clove
23.2.17 Nigella sativa
23.2.18 Brassica oleracea
23.2.19 Achillea biebersteinii
23.2.20 Satureja khuzestanica
23.3 Multi-Organ Protective Effects
References
24 Essential Oil Dispensing Methods
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Strategies Used in the Delivery of EOs
24.3 Earlier Methods Used in the Delivery of EO via Inhalation
24.3.1 Room Diffusers
24.3.2 Heat Diffusers
24.3.3 EO Dispersion Using Candles
24.3.4 Water-Mediated Dispersion
24.3.5 Evaporative Diffusers
24.3.6 Ultrasonic Aroma Diffuser and Ionizer
24.3.7 Nebulizing EO Diffusers
24.3.8 Intranasal Decongestant EO Spray
24.4 Strategies Used for Inhalation of EOs
24.4.1 Particulate Entry to the Respiratory Tract
24.5 Modern Inhaler Devices and Their Challenges
24.5.1 Nebulizers for Liquid Material
24.5.2 Pressurized Metered-Dose Inhalers
24.5.3 Polymer-Mediated Encapsulation of EOs
References
25 Toxicity Associated with Essential Oils
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Toxicity of EOs
25.3 Assessment of EO Toxicity
25.4 Protective and Toxic or Adverse Effects of EOs
25.4.1 Achyrocline flaccida EO
25.4.2 Aquilaria crassna
25.4.3 Ayapana triplinervis EO
25.4.4 Achillea millefolium EO
25.4.5 Croton campestris EO
25.4.6 Cymbopogon giganteus EO
25.4.7 Citrus aurantifolia EO
25.4.8 Curcuma caesia EO
25.4.9 Cinnamodendron dinisii EO
25.4.10 Cinnamomum verum Leaf EO
25.4.11 Faeniculum vulgare EO
25.4.12 Gautheria procumbens EO
25.4.13 Gallesia integrifolia EO
25.4.14 Lavender EO
25.4.15 Litsea cubeba EO
25.4.16 Mesosphaerum sidifolium EO and Fenchone
25.4.17 Origanum vulgare
25.4.18 Piper vicosanum EO
25.4.19 Sandalwood EO
25.4.20 Satureja khuzistanica EO
25.4.21 Thymus vulgaris EO
25.4.22 Xylopia langsdorffiana EO
25.4.23 Miscellaneous EOs
25.4.24 EO-Loaded Nanosystem
References