Residential Fire Safety: An Interdisciplinary Approach

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Part I: Determinants, Mechanisms and Risk Groups
Chapter 1: Fire-Related Mortality from a Global Perspective
1 Introduction
2 Fire-Related Mortality by Demography
3 Fire-Related Mortality by Geographic Distribution
4 Fire-Related Mortality by Income Distribution
5 Changing Historical Trends
6 Discussion and Conclusions
References
Chapter 2: Fire Fatalities and Fatal Fires – Risk Factors and Risk Groups
1 Introduction
2 Terminology
3 Delimitation
4 Early Research
5 Age and Sex
6 Smoking and Alcohol
7 Living Alone or Being Home Alone at the Time of the Fire
8 Socio-economic Factors
9 Race and Ethnicity
10 Urban Versus Rural Residence
11 Functional Limitations
12 Discussion
13 Conclusions
References
Chapter 3: The Residential Fire Injury Pyramid
1 Introduction
2 Residential Fires Not Attended to by Rescue Services
3 Non-fatal Fires Attended to by Rescue Services
4 Non-fatal Injurious Residential Fires
5 Fatal Residential Fires
6 Discussion
References
Chapter 4: Fire-Related Injury Mechanisms
1 Introduction
2 Causes of Death in Residential Fires
2.1 Inhalation Injury
Signs of Inhalation Injury
Clinical Entities of Inhalation Injuries
Upper Airway Injury (Above Glottis)
Lower Airway Injury (Below Glottis)
Inhalation of Toxic Gases
2.2 Smoke
2.3 Asphyxia
2.4 Acute Irritation
2.5 Physical Exposure (Heat)
2.6 Physical Exposure (Vision)
2.7 Long-Term Effects
3 Medical and Biological Factors Affecting Mortality
3.1 Carbon Monoxide
3.2 Carbon Dioxide
3.3 Oxygen Depletion
3.4 Hydrogen Cyanide
3.5 Asphyxiation Synergy
3.6 Irritants
3.7 Nitrogen Dioxide
3.8 Heat Exposure
3.9 (Cutaneous) Burns
4 On the Scene
4.1 Treatment
4.2 Isolated Inhalation Injuries
4.3 Burn Injuries With/Without Inhalation Injury
5 Discussion
References
Chapter 5: The Evacuation of People with Functional Limitations
1 Introduction
1.1 Historical Background on Disability
1.2 Chapter at a Glance
2 From Accessibility to Egressibility in Residential Buildings
3 Linking Egress Activities and Functional Limitations
4 Data for Evacuation Design
4.1 Pre-movement Phase
4.2 Movement Phase
5 Understanding the Impact of Functional Limitations
5.1 Translating Knowledge on Public Buildings to Residential Buildings
6 Discussion and Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Fire Safety Surveillance: Theoretical and Practical Challenges
1 Potential Uses of Fire Safety Surveillance Data
2 Desirable Features of a System for Fire Safety Surveillance
3 Data Sources for Fire Safety Surveillance
3.1 Fire Service Incident Reports
3.2 Investigations After Fatal Fires
3.3 Data from Forensic Pathologists on Fire-Related Deaths
3.4 Data from Ambulance Service
3.5 Data from National Patient Register on Fire-Related Injuries
3.6 Data on Fire Insurance Claims from Insurance Companies
3.7 Investigations After Residential Fires
3.8 Surveys on Residential Fires
3.9 Summary of Data Sources
4 Definitions
4.1 Definitions of “Residential”
4.2 Definitions of “Fire”
4.3 Definitions of “Fire Death”
4.4 Definitions of “Fire Injury”
5 Discussion
5.1 Matching Data from Different Sources
5.2 Legal Basis for Access to Data
5.3 The Importance of Investigation of Human Behaviour in Residential Fires
5.4 More Advanced Measurements of Deaths
5.5 More Advanced Measurements of Serious Injury
6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Implications for Prevention
1 Introduction – Empirical Summary
2 General Accident and Injury Prevention Principles
3 Implications for the Prevention of Fire-Related Deaths and Injuries
4 Technical and Organizational Measures for Prevention
5 Conclusions
References
Part II: Preventive Measures for Residential Fires
Chapter 8: Smoke Alarms and the Human Response
1 Smoke Alarms
1.1 Brief History
1.2 Smoke Alarm Types
1.3 Standards Governing Smoke Alarms
2 Human Response to the Smoke Alarm
2.1 Response When People Are Sleeping
2.2 Response When People Are Awake
3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Impact of Interior Doors on Residential Fire Safety
1 Introduction
2 Doors in Residential Dwellings
2.1 Types of Residential Interior Doors
2.2 General Placement of Doors in Residences
3 Residential Fire Scenarios and Occupant Behaviors
3.1 Residential Fire Scenarios
3.2 Occupant Door Position Habits
4 Fundamentals: Role of Interior Doors in Residential Fires
4.1 Fire Performance of Interior Doors
4.2 Notification: Doors as a Barrier to Sound
4.2.1 Smoke Alarm Activation Delays from a Closed Door
4.2.2 Delays to Occupant Notification by Sound Attenuation
4.3 Occupant Tenability: Doors’ Impact on Temperature, Smoke Spread, and Gas Exposure
4.4 Pressure Peaks: Doors’ Impact on Egress
5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 10: Prevention of Ignition and Limitation of Fire Development in Furnishing and Home Environment
1 Strategies for a Holistic Assessment of Residential Fire Safety
2 Fire Development and the Role of the Content of the Dwelling
2.1 Fire Development in a Compartment
2.2 How and Where Residential Fires Start
2.3 Role of Furnishing in Fatal Fires
3 Regulation and Documentation of Fire Properties of Furnishing
3.1 Regulations
3.2 Documentation
4 Fire Safety of Furnishing Items
4.1 Fire Properties of Interior Textiles
4.2 Flame Retardants
4.3 Upholstered Furniture and Mattresses
4.4 Curtains and Draperies
4.5 Bedding Items
4.6 Carpets
5 Other Methods for Prevention of Ignition in Dwellings
5.1 Reduced Ignition Propensity Cigarettes (RIP)
5.2 Smoking Apron and Smoking Blanket
5.3 Protection of Electric Components
6 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 11: Active Fire Protection Systems for Residential Applications
1 Introduction
2 Residential Sprinkler Systems
2.1 The Background and Development of Residential Sprinklers
2.2 Installation Requirements in NFPA 13D and 13R
2.3 Residential Sprinkler Requirements in the USA
2.4 Adoption and Use of Residential Sprinklers Outside of USA
2.5 Residential Sprinkler Field Experience
2.6 Residential Sprinkler Studies
3 Water Mist Fire Protection Systems
4 Pre-engineered Fixed-Installed or Mobile Area Fire Protection Systems
4.1 Fixed Pre-engineered Water Mist Systems
4.2 Mobile Pre-engineered Water Mist Systems
4.3 Fire Tests and Field Experience
5 Stove Top Protection Systems
5.1 Fire Tests and Field Experience
6 Summary
References
Chapter 12: Residential Fire Rescues: Building a Model of Rescue Types for Supporting the Fire Service
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Survey Data as the Foundation of the Model
3.1 Characterization of the Rescues by Scale and Urgency of the Rescue Operation
3.2 General Features of Rescues by the Fire Brigade
3.3 Features of Large-Scale Rescue Operations by the Fire Service
3.4 Urgent Rescues: Small-Scale Compared to Large-Scale Operations
3.5 Small-Scale Urgent Rescue Operations Compared to Fatal Residential Fires
3.6 Summary of the Survey Data
4 Building a Model for Common Types of Rescue
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Rescue Type 0: The Victim Is Rescued as a Precaution
4.3 Rescue Type 1: The Victim Is Unaware of the Fire
4.4 Rescue Type 2: The Victim Decides Not to Escape
4.5 Rescue Type 3a: The Escape Route of the Residential Unit on Fire Is Blocked by Smoke
4.6 Rescue Type 3b: Smoke Blocks the Escape Route for the Neighboring Apartments
4.7 Rescue Type 4: The Victim Is Seriously Injured by the Fire
4.8 Rescue Type 5: The Victim Has a Physical Disability
4.9 Rescue Type 6: Other Reasons for the Need for Rescue
4.10 Rescue Type 7: Large-Scale Rescue Operation, Rescues as a Precaution
4.11 Rescue Type 8: Large-Scale Rescue Operation, Urgent Rescues
5 Application of the Model
6 Conclusions
6.1 A First Step Toward a Model of Rescue Types for Supporting the Fire Service
6.2 Main Findings from the Dutch Survey
6.3 Indicators for an Increased Chance of Survival
References
Chapter 13: Cost-Benefit Analysis of Fire Safety Measures
1 Introduction
2 The Ten Major Steps in Performing an CBA
2.1 Explain the Purpose of the CBA
2.2 Specify the Set of Alternative Projects
2.3 Decide Whose Benefits and Costs Count (Specify Standing)
2.4 Identify the Impact Categories, Catalogue them, and Select Metrics
2.5 Predict the Impacts Quantitatively Over the Life of the Project
2.6 Monetize All Impacts
2.7 & 2.8 Discount Benefits and Costs to Obtain Present Values, and Compute the Net Present Value of Each Alternative
2.9 Perform Sensitivity Analysis
2.10 Make a Recommendation
3 Some CBA Results: Residential Fires
4 Some Complications in Doing and Using CBAs
4.1 Valuing Non-market Units
4.2 Generalizations and Benefit-Transfers
4.3 CBAs Are Non-budget Calculations
4.4 CBAs Evaluate Marginal Increases in Fire Safety, Not Perfect Fire Safety
4.5 Difference from Other Economic Evaluation Methods
4.6 For the Sceptical Reader
5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 14: Sociodemographic Patterns in the Effectiveness and Prevalence of Preventive Measures
1 Introduction
2 Effectiveness of Different Measures
3 Benefit from the Installation of Different Measures
4 Sociodemographic Patterns in Current Level of Residential Fire Protection
5 Limitations
6 Conclusions
6.1 What Measures Are Effective for Different Population Groups?
6.2 Where Will the Installation of a Specific Measure Provide the Largest Benefit?
6.3 Who Currently Owns Different Fire Preventive Measures?
References
Part III: Implementing Evidence-Based Fire Safety Promotion
Chapter 15: Vision Zero for Fire Safety
1 Introduction
2 The Role Model: Vision Zero on Road Traffic
3 A Vision Zero on Fire Safety: Rationale and Challenges
4 The Systems Approach
5 Measurability
6 Controllability
7 Determination, Mandate, and Organization
8 Challenges and Opportunities in Adopting a Vision Zero for Fire Safety
9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 16: Fire Safety Education Campaigns
1 Introduction
2 History of Fire Safety Campaigns
2.1 Insurance Industry
2.2 Nonprofits and Community Groups
2.3 Fire Service
2.3.1 United States/North American Context
2.3.2 Rest of World Fire Service Public Fire Education Exemplars
2.3.3 Summary
3 Major References and Milestones
4 How to Define a Campaign
5 Evaluating Campaign Effectiveness
5.1 Design with Evaluation in Mind
5.1.1 Analysis Issues: Know Your Data
5.1.2 Sustain the Effort
5.1.3 Using Professionals and Advertising Agencies
5.2 Implementation
5.2.1 High-Quality Research and Evaluations
5.2.2 Something Is Better Than Nothing
5.3 Using National/Regional Campaigns Versus Custom Campaigns
5.4 Reaching the “Hard to Reach”
6 The Future of Social Marketing/Safety Campaigns
7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Targeted Interventions Towards Risk Groups
1 Individuals with Increased Risk
1.1 Determinants of Health
2 Individualised Fire Prevention Interventions
2.1 Models for Prevention and Promotion
2.2 Targeting Vulnerable Individuals and Groups
2.3 Intervention Programmes
2.4 Case Description
3 Implementation Barriers and Facilitators
4 Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: Residential Fires in Metropolitan Areas: Living Conditions and Fire Prevention
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Points of Departure
2.1 Fire Risk Environment and Fire Protection Capability
2.2 Determination Factors
2.2.1 Direct Determination Factors
2.2.2 Indirect Determination Factors
2.3 Geo-Statistical Approach on Residential Fires
2.4 Types of Residential Fires
2.5 Modeling of Causes of Residential Fires
3 Data and Methods
3.1 Data
3.2 GIS and Statistics
3.3 Study Area
4 Residential Fires and Living Conditions
4.1 Fire Statistics in Sweden and Gothenburg
4.2 Statistical Relationship: Living Conditions and Residential Fires
4.3 Geographical Distribution of Residential Fires in Gothenburg
5 Prevention of Residential Fires
5.1 Area-Based and Systematic Fire Prevention Work
References
Chapter 19: Early Responders as a Resource for Effective Response
1 Introduction
2 Reorganizing Swedish Emergency Response: Dynamic Resource Allocation, Cross-Sector Collaboration, and Coproduction
3 What Are the Effects of a First Response?
4 Empirical Results
5 FIP
6 Semiprofessionals
7 Volunteers
8 Discussion
9 Future Work
References
Chapter 20: Swedish Strategies for Prevention of Residential Fires: The Case of the Swedish Fire Protection Association and the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency
1 A National Fire Protection Strategy
2 A Strategy for the Whole Society
3 The Process to an Established Strategy
4 From Strategy to Practice
4.1 Strategy (Plan)
4.2 Implementation (Carry Out)
4.3 Results (Follow Up)
4.4 Feedback
4.5 Review of the Strategy
5 Examples of Two Strategies
5.1 MSB: A National Strategy for Improved Fire Protection
5.2 The Swedish Fire Protection Association Strategy: A Fire-Safe Residence for Everyone
References
Part IV: Conclusion
Chapter 21: The Road Ahead
1 Introduction
2 The Resident(s)
3 The Technology
4 The Actors
5 Governance: Leading, Learning and Sharing
6 Conclusions
References
Index