Research for Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences

Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Contributor
Chapter 1: The Nature and Scope of Research
1.1 Research in Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences: Inclusion in the Curriculum
1.2 What Is Research?
1.2.1 The Scientific Method: Key Characteristics
1.3 The Importance of Research: Evidence-Based Practice
1.3.1 Evidence-Based Practice
1.4 Types of Scientific Research
1.5 The Research Process Cycle: Steps in Conducting Research
1.5.1 Problem Identification
1.5.2 The Literature Review
1.5.3 The Research Purpose Statement
1.5.4 Research Objectives, Questions, and Hypothesis
1.5.5 Research Methodology and Research Design
1.5.6 Data Collection
1.5.7 Data Analysis and Interpretation
1.5.8 Research Report and Evaluation
1.6 Research Ethics
References
Chapter 2: Quantitative and Qualitative Research: An Overview of Approaches
2.1 What Is Quantitative Research?
2.1.1 Types of Quantitative Research
2.1.1.1 Non-interventional Research Designs
Descriptive Research
Correlational Research
Survey Research
2.1.1.2 Interventional Research Designs
Experimental Research
Quasi-Experimental Research
2.1.2 Steps in Quantitative Research
2.2 What Is Qualitative Research?
2.2.1 Types of Qualitative Research
2.2.1.1 Examples in Medical Imaging
2.2.2 Steps in Qualitative Research
References
Chapter 3: Planning Your Research
3.1 Formulating a Research Question
3.1.1 Broad and Narrow Research Questions
3.1.2 Types and Characteristics of Good Research Questions
3.1.3 Research Aim or Objective
3.2 Research Planning
3.2.1 Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks
3.2.2 Questions Within the Research
3.2.3 PICOT Framework
3.2.4 FINER Framework
3.2.5 Which Framework?
3.3 Hypotheses
3.3.1 Falsifiability
3.3.2 Null Hypothesis
3.3.3 Formulating a Hypothesis
3.4 Research Ethics
3.4.1 Respect for the Person or Persons
3.4.2 Beneficence
3.4.3 Non-maleficence
3.4.4 Justice
3.4.5 Broader Ethical Areas for Consideration
3.4.6 Writing Ethics Applications
3.4.7 Ethics and Manuscript Publication
3.5 The Research Proposal
3.5.1 Timelines and Gantt Chart
3.6 Final Words
Bibliography
Resources
Chapter 4: Literature Searches and Reviews
4.1 Literature Searches and Reviews: Overview
4.2 Searching the Literature
4.2.1 Getting the Search Terms Correct
4.2.2 Journal Databases and Search Engines
4.3 A Literature Review Versus Annotated Bibliography
4.3.1 Bibliographic Information
4.3.2 Annotated Bibliography
4.3.3 Literature Review
4.3.4 Advanced Types of Literature Reviews
4.4 Writing the Review
4.5 Acknowledgement of Sources
References
Chapter 5: Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods
5.1 Quantitative Research Methods
5.1.1 Descriptive Research
5.1.2 Correlation Research
5.1.3 Quasi-Experimental Research
5.1.4 Non-equivalent Groups Design
5.1.5 Regression Discontinuity
5.1.6 Natural Experiments
5.1.7 Experimental Research
5.2 Qualitative Research Methods
5.2.1 Phenomenological Research
5.2.2 Grounded Theory Research
5.2.3 Ethnographic Research
5.2.4 Explanatory–Descriptive Qualitative Research
5.2.5 Historical Research
References
Chapter 6: Data Collection, Analysis, and Interpretation
6.1 Data Collection
6.1.1 Preparation for a Data Collection
6.2 Common Tools for Data Collection in Medical Imaging
6.2.1 Quantitative Methods
6.2.1.1 Dose Measurement
6.2.1.2 Image Quality Measures
6.2.1.3 Assessment of Knowledge or Attitudes
6.2.2 Qualitative Methods
6.2.2.1 Interviews
6.2.2.2 Focus Groups
6.2.2.3 Ethnographic Research
6.2.2.4 Action Research
6.2.2.5 Content Analysis
6.2.2.6 Case Study Research
6.2.2.7 Mixed Methods
6.3 Descriptive Statistics
6.3.1 Presentation of Data
6.3.1.1 Bar Charts
6.3.1.2 Pie Charts
6.3.1.3 Histograms
6.3.1.4 Scatter Plots
6.3.1.5 Box Plots
6.3.1.6 Tables
6.3.1.7 Graphs
6.3.2 Measures of Central Tendency
6.3.2.1 Nominal (Categorical) Data
6.3.2.2 Ordinal Data
6.3.2.3 Continuous Data (Interval/Ratio Data)
6.3.2.4 Mode, Median, and Mean
6.3.2.5 Mode
6.3.2.6 Median
6.3.2.7 Mean
6.3.2.8 Comparison of the Mode, Median, and Mean
6.3.3 Measures of Variability
6.3.3.1 Range
6.3.3.2 The Interquartile Range
6.3.3.3 Mean Deviation
6.3.3.4 Variance
6.3.3.5 Standard Deviation
6.4 Correlation
6.4.1 Correlation and Causation
6.5 Inferential Statistics
6.5.1 The Normal Distribution
6.5.1.1 The Standard Normal Curve
6.5.1.2 Using Standardised Normal Curves to Compare Distributions
6.5.2 Hypothesis Testing and Interpreting Outcome of Statistical Tests
6.5.2.1 Step 1
6.5.2.2 Step 2
6.5.2.3 Step 3
6.5.2.4 Step 4
6.5.3 Sampling Distributions: Parametric (Normal) and Nonparametric (Non-normal)
6.5.3.1 The Uniform Distribution
6.5.3.2 The Exponential Distribution
6.5.3.3 Central Limit Theorem
6.5.4 Making Decisions About Which Statistical Test to Use
6.5.4.1 Step 1
6.5.4.2 Step 2
6.5.4.3 Step 3
6.5.4.4 Step 4
6.5.5 Sample Size (Power) Calculation
6.6 Image Quality Measurement and Comparison
6.6.1 Physical Measures
6.6.2 Psychophysical Measures
6.6.3 Observer Performance Tests
6.6.3.1 Visual Grading Analysis (VGA)
6.6.3.2 Visual Grading Characteristics (VGC)
The Area Under the VGC Curve
6.6.3.3 Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Methods
The Confusion Matrix
Sensitivity and Specificity
Calculating Sensitivity and Specificity
Positive and Negative Predictive Values
Accuracy
Plotting the ROC curve
Calculating the Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC)
Sample Size Calculation for ROC
6.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Communicating Research Findings
7.1 Method of Communicating Your Research Findings
7.1.1 Create a Profile
7.2 Audience
7.2.1 Map your Audience
7.2.2 Students
7.2.3 Clinical Professionals
7.2.4 Other Professionals
7.2.5 Institutions/Organizations
7.2.6 General Public
7.2.7 General Comments
7.3 Research Output Types
7.4 Journal Articles
7.4.1 Journal Selection and Criteria for Evaluating a Journal
7.4.2 Journal Article Writing
7.4.3 Review and Revision
7.5 Conference Presentations
7.5.1 Oral Presentations
7.5.1.1 Presentation Submission
7.5.1.2 Preparing the Presentation
7.5.1.3 At the Conference
7.5.2 Poster Presentations
7.5.2.1 Printed Posters
7.5.2.2 Electronic Posters
7.5.3 Online Conference Presentation
7.5.4 Alternate Means of Research Dissemination
7.5.4.1 Websites
7.5.4.2 Visual Abstracts
7.5.5 Advanced Methods of Research Dissemination
7.5.5.1 Textbooks
7.5.5.2 Thesis or Dissertation
7.6 Final Thoughts
References
Chapter 8: Examples of Published Research Studies in Medical Imaging: A Selected Review
8.1 List of Research Studies
8.1.1 Study 1: Example of a Descriptive Correlational Design in Radiography
8.1.2 Study 2: Example of a Non-interventional Quantitative Cross-Sectional Survey Design Study of Radiologic Technologists in a Computed Radiography Environment
8.1.3 Study 3: Example of a Literature Review (Rob Davidson, PhD)
8.1.4 Study 4: Example of Descriptive Research and Relational Research (Rob Davidson, PhD)
8.1.5 Study 5: Example of a Retrospective Mixed Methods Analysis (Mark McEntee, PhD)
8.1.5.1 Background
Insight
8.1.5.2 Method
Insights
8.1.5.3 Results
Insight
8.1.6 Study 6: Example of Research Using Sensitivity, Specificity and Accuracy to Determine the Performance of a Radiographer Abnormality Detection in Singapore (Mark McEntee, PhD)
8.1.6.1 Background
Insight
8.1.6.2 Methods
Insight
8.1.6.3 Results
8.1.6.4 Discussion
Insight
8.1.7 Study 7: Example of a Randomized Trial in Radiography (Andrew England, PhD)
8.1.8 Study 8: Example of a Non-randomized Trial in Radiography (Andrew England, PhD)
Index