Repatriation of Sacred Indigenous Cultural Heritage and the Law: Lessons from the United States and Canada

Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
List of Select Abbreviations
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Current Claims for Indigenous Cultural Heritage in Museum Collections
1.2 Research Questions and Methodology
1.2.1 Normative, Comparative Legal Research
1.2.2 To Repatriate or Not to Repatriate: And If Yes to Whom? The Repatriation Dilemma and the Existing Debate
1.2.2.1 Actors in the Repatriation Debate
1.2.2.2 Arguments on Whether to Repatriate or Not
1.3 Research Focus
1.3.1 Focus on Sacred Cultural Heritage in Public Collections
1.3.2 Intra-national Versus International Repatriations and Returns
1.3.3 Focus on the United States and Canada
1.3.4 Limitations or Potential Dangers of the Adopted Approach
1.3.4.1 In Solely Choosing English Terminology for Repatriation Efforts, the Original Problem May Be Misconceived/Misrepresent...
1.3.4.2 The Cultural Diversity Debate
1.3.4.3 Changing Values
1.3.4.4 Enforcing or Working on the Basis of Stereotypical Understandings of What `Indigenous´ Means
1.3.4.5 Approaching a Non-Legal Problem from a Legal Perspective
1.4 Terminology and the Focus of the Research: Indigenous Peoples, Cultural Heritage and Other Relevant Terms Defined
1.4.1 Repatriation: Restitution-Recovery-Return
1.4.2 Culture
1.4.3 Cultural Heritage/Cultural Property
1.4.4 Minority
1.4.5 Indigenous Peoples
1.4.5.1 Etymological Approach
1.4.5.2 Analysis of the Existing Definitions and the Definition Adopted in This Study
1.4.5.3 Indigenous Peoples as Minorities?
1.4.6 Sacred Ceremonial/Secret Objects
1.4.7 Sovereignty
1.5 Structure
References
Part I: Sacred Indigenous Cultural Heritage in International Law
Chapter 2: Repatriation of Sacred Indigenous Cultural Heritage Under International Human Rights Law
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Method of Interpretation ICCPR/ICESCR
2.1.2 Status and Interpretation of the UNDRIP
2.1.3 Indigenous Rights and Connected UN Bodies
2.2 Civil and Political Rights
2.2.1 Right to Self-Determination: Common Art.1
2.2.1.1 Article 1
2.2.1.2 Evolution of the Right to Self-Determination in Relation to Indigenous Peoples
2.2.1.3 Substance of the Right and Application to Indigenous Peoples
2.2.1.4 Application to the Repatriation Debate
2.2.1.5 Indigenous Self-Determination Since the Adoption of the UNDRIP
2.2.2 Right to Non-Discrimination and Substantive Equality
2.2.2.1 Discrimination Against Indigenous Peoples as Racial Discrimination
2.2.3 Freedom of Religion
2.2.3.1 Article 18 ICCPR
2.2.3.2 Content of the Right and Application to Indigenous Heritage
2.2.3.3 Possible Limitations
2.2.3.3.1 Prescribed by Law and Serve a Recognized Purpose
2.2.3.3.2 Be Necessary for Attaining this Purpose
2.2.3.4 Linking Art.18 ICCPR to Repatriation
2.3 Cultural Rights
2.3.1 Cultural Rights as Collective Rights
2.3.2 The Link Between Cultural Diversity, Cultural Heritage and Cultural Rights
2.3.3 Right of Minority to Enjoy its Own Culture
2.3.3.1 Art.27 ICCPR
2.3.3.2 Context
2.3.3.3 Content
2.3.3.4 Limiting Art.27 ICCPR
2.3.3.5 Linking Art.27 to the Repatriation Debate
2.3.4 Right to Participate in the Cultural Life
2.3.4.1 Article 15 ICESCR
2.3.4.2 Context
2.3.4.3 Normative Content and Justiciability
2.3.4.4 Art.15(1)(a) and the Repatriation of Indigenous Religious Heritage
2.3.4.5 Limitations Imposed on Art.15 and Limitations Inherent in Considering Cultural Heritage Under Art.15
2.4 Indigenous Rights
2.4.1 ILO Treaties
2.4.1.1 ILO Convention 107 and the Road to Its Replacement
2.4.1.2 Content of Convention No. 169
2.4.2 UNDRIP and Substantive Indigenous Rights
2.4.2.1 UNDRIP: Legislative Context and Status Under International Law
2.4.2.2 Specific UNDRIP Provisions
2.4.2.2.1 Right to Self-Determination
2.4.2.2.2 Right to Practise and Revitalize Cultural Traditions and Customs
2.4.2.2.3 Right to Spiritual and Religious Traditions
2.4.2.2.4 Right to their Cultural Heritage
2.4.2.2.5 Report of the Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples on Repatriation
2.4.3 Indigenous Rights in the Inter-American Human Rights System
2.4.3.1 Cultural Rights in the Inter-American Human Rights System
2.4.3.2 The American Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
2.4.4 An Indigenous Right (of Access) to Cultural Heritage Under Customary Law?
2.5 Human Rights that May Be Limited by a Successful Repatriation
2.5.1 Indigenous Religious Objects as the Heritage of a Wider Community?
2.5.2 Right to Participate in Cultural Life of Majority
2.5.2.1 Content
2.5.2.2 Balancing Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Cultural Rights
2.5.3 Right to Freedom of Property
2.5.3.1 Article 17 UDHR
2.5.3.2 Content
2.5.3.3 Balancing Indigenous Cultural Rights and the Right to Property
2.5.4 The Indigenous Individual Versus the Indigenous Community
2.5.5 Balancing Conflicting Rights
2.6 Human Rights and Indigenous Cultural Heritage: A Toolbox to Help Align National Cultural Heritage Law with Indigenous Righ...
2.6.1 Standards and Obligations
2.6.2 Test to Evaluate Measures Limiting the Indigenous Right to Use Their Sacred Objects
2.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Repatriation of Sacred Indigenous Heritage Under International Cultural Heritage Law
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Evolution of International Cultural Heritage Law
3.2.1 UNESCO: The Leading Organization
3.2.2 The Development of International Cultural Heritage Law
3.2.3 Lack of Consideration for Indigenous Interests in Their Cultural Heritage in Early UNESCO Treaties
3.2.3.1 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cul...
3.2.3.2 1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
3.3 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects
3.3.1 Drafting History
3.3.2 Return of Sacred Indigenous Heritage Under the Convention
3.3.3 An Important Signal of Support for Indigenous Cultural Rights
3.4 The 2003 UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage
3.4.1 Drafting History, Context and Main Aims of the Convention
3.4.2 Sacred Indigenous Cultural Heritage Under the Convention
3.5 The 2005 UNESCO Convention on the Promotion and Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions
3.5.1 Context: The 2001 Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity
3.5.2 Adoption and Main Aims of the Convention
3.5.3 Sacred Indigenous Cultural Heritage Under the Convention
3.6 The Return of Indigenous (Sacred) Heritage in International Soft Law Instruments
3.6.1 2015 UNESCO Recommendation Concerning the Protection and Promotion of Museums and Collections, Their Diversity and Their...
3.6.2 ILA Principles for Cooperation in the Mutual Protection and Transfer of Cultural Material 2006
3.6.3 ICOM Code of Ethics
3.7 Conclusion to Chapter 3
References
Part II: Sacred Indigenous Cultural Heritage in U.S. Law
Chapter 4: Repatriation of Sacred Indigenous Heritage in U.S. Law
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Historic Evolution of the Relationship Between Tribes and the Federal Government
4.2.1 Treaty Federalism
4.2.2 Allotment Era (1870s-1930s)
4.2.3 Indian Reorganization (1930s-1950s)
4.2.4 Termination (1950s-1960s)
4.2.5 Self-determination (1960s-present)
4.3 Foundations
4.3.1 Constitution
4.3.1.1 Competences
4.3.1.2 Constitutional Rights at Issue
4.3.2 Relationship Between Different Legal Systems and Actors
4.3.2.1 American Indigenous Sovereignty
4.3.2.2 US: International Law
4.3.2.3 Federal-Tribal Relationship
4.3.2.4 Relationship Indigenous Peoples/Tribes: States
4.3.2.5 Treaties
4.3.2.6 US Law-Tribal Laws
4.3.2.7 Federal Indian Law
4.3.3 The American ``Indian´´ Definition in the Law
4.4 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
4.4.1 Legislative History: Background and Adoption
4.4.2 General Characteristics
4.4.2.1 Structure
4.4.2.2 Parties
4.4.2.2.1 Key Definitions of Non-Indigenous Parties
4.4.2.2.2 Key Definitions of Indigenous Parties
4.4.2.3 Objects covered by NAGPRA and Accompanying Regulations
4.4.2.4 Types of Land Covered by NAGPRA and Accompanying Regulations
4.4.2.5 Objectives
4.4.3 Repatriation Mechanism
4.4.3.1 Inventory and Summary of Collection
4.4.3.2 Determining Cultural Affiliation
4.4.3.3 Repatriating Sacred Items from Existing Collections
4.4.3.4 NAGPRA and Property Law
4.4.4 Protection of Unexcavated Sacred Objects After the Entry into Force of NAGPRA
4.4.5 NAGPRA in Practice
4.4.5.1 Responsible Organizations
4.4.5.2 NAGPRA in Numbers
4.4.5.3 International Returns Under NAGPRA
4.4.6 Evaluation of NAGPRA
4.4.6.1 Initial Hopes
4.4.6.2 Congressional and Tribal Evaluation Studies After 20 Years
4.4.6.3 NAGPRA: Positive Effects and Drawbacks
4.5 Legal Protection of Indigenous Religious Freedom and Its Role for Repatriation
4.5.1 Constitutional Rights and Indigenous Sacredness
4.5.1.1 Implications of Constitutional Structure
4.5.1.2 Establishment Clause
4.5.1.3 Burdening/Infringing on the Free Exercise of Religion
4.5.2 AIRFA
4.5.2.1 American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA) and Repatriation
4.5.3 Access to and Use of Sacred Sites
4.6 Museum and Heritage Regulation
4.6.1 Federal Heritage Legislation
4.6.1.1 Archaeological Resources Protection Act
4.6.1.2 A Patchwork of Export Laws
4.6.1.3 National Museum of the American Indian Act
4.6.2 Nature of Museums and Their General Duties vs Repatriation Legislation
4.6.3 Self-regulation of Museums: Code of Ethics of Cultural Institutions
References
Chapter 5: Evaluation of Repatriation in U.S. Law
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Repatriation of Indigenous Religious Heritage Under NAGPRA
5.3 Relevant Legal Context: Summary of Research Findings
5.3.1 Protection of Indigenous Religious Heritage Under Federal U.S. Law
5.3.2 Museum (Self-) Regulation
5.4 Application of Human Rights Principles to NAGPRA and Related Federal Law
5.4.1 Applying Principles from the Human Rights Toolbox to the U.S. Legal Heritage Context
5.4.2 Limitations on the Right to Access and Use of Sacred Objects
5.4.2.1 Application of Framework to 2(A)
5.4.2.2 Application of Framework to 2(B)
5.4.2.3 Application of Framework to 2(C)
5.5 Concluding Observations to Part II
References
Part III: Sacred Indigenous Cultural Heritage in Canadian Law
Chapter 6: Indigenous Sacred Heritage on the National Level: Federal Canadian Law and Canadian Museums
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Foundations
6.2.1 Constitution
6.2.1.1 Constitutions: An Evolution
6.2.1.2 Distribution of Competences and Interpretational Principles
6.2.1.3 S.35(1): Judicial Empowerment and Parliamentary Restriction
6.2.2 Relationship Between Canadian Institutions and Indigenous Peoples
6.2.2.1 Concurrent, Contradicting or Overlapping Jurisdictions: Reconciliatory Principles at the Cost of Indigenous Peoples?
6.2.2.2 S.91(24) and the Power to Legislate Over `Indians´
6.2.2.3 Indian Status Under the Indian Act
6.2.2.4 Honour of the Crown: Fiduciary Duty
6.3 Federal Framework
6.3.1 Indian Act
6.3.1.1 Historic Background and Evolution of the Act
6.3.1.2 Protection of Indigenous Cultural Heritage on Reserve Lands
6.3.1.3 Registration under the Act and Definition
6.3.1.4 Aboriginal Self-Government
6.3.1.5 Section 88: The Provincial Level
6.3.2 Aboriginal Law in Canada: Rights and Treaties as a Sui Generis Domain of the Supreme Court
6.3.2.1 Aboriginal Rights: Nature and Limitations
6.3.2.1.1 Nature of Aboriginal Rights
6.3.2.1.2 Specific Content and Test
6.3.2.2 A Right to Indigenous Cultural Objects as an Aboriginal Right?
6.3.2.2.1 The Right to an Indigenous Religious Practice or Tradition
6.3.2.2.2 The Right to the Exclusive Control or Use of a Dislocated Object
6.3.2.3 Treaty Rights: Their Nature, Their Relationship to Repatriation and Their Limitations
6.3.2.3.1 Historic Treaties
6.3.2.3.2 Modern Treaties
6.3.2.3.3 Limitations of and on Treaty Making
6.3.2.3.4 Treaties and the Repatriation Question
6.3.3 Indigenous Religious Freedom in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
6.3.3.1 S.2(a) CCRF: Freedom of Conscience and Religion
6.3.3.2 S.15 CCRF Equality and Aboriginal Rights Protection
6.3.3.3 S.25 CCRF: Aboriginal Rights, Treaty Rights, and the Charter
6.3.3.4 Procedural Aspects
6.3.4 Canada´s Implementation of UNDRIP
6.3.5 Heritage Legislation and Museum Framework
6.3.5.1 Export Regulation
6.3.5.2 Fiduciary Duties and the Deaccessioning of Indigenous Heritage
6.3.5.3 National Canadian Heritage and the Repatriation Question
6.4 Canadian Museum Documents
6.4.1 1992 Museum Task Force Report
6.4.2 Canadian Museum Association Guidelines
6.4.2.1 Ethical Guidelines
6.4.2.2 Deaccessioning Guidelines
References
Chapter 7: Repatriation of Sacred Indigenous Cultural Heritage in Provincial Law: Alberta and British Columbia
7.1 Alberta
7.1.1 Heritage Legislation
7.1.1.1 Historical Resources Act
7.1.1.2 The First Nation Sacred Ceremonial Objects Repatriation Act and the Blackfoot First Nations Sacred Ceremonial Objects ...
7.1.1.3 Glenbow-Alberta Institute Act
7.1.2 Evaluation of Legal Repatriation Opportunities Within Alberta
7.2 British Columbia
7.2.1 Legal and Historical Background to Current Repatriation Requests
7.2.1.1 Lack of Treaty Making
7.2.1.2 The Royal British Columbia Museum and Repatriation
7.2.1.3 Provincial Adoption of UNDRIP and the Hope for a New Relationship
7.2.2 British Columbia Heritage Conservation Act
7.2.2.1 Relevant Provisions
7.2.2.2 The Heritage Conservation Act and Its Relationship to Indigenous Control over Their Cultural Heritage
7.2.2.2.1 Provincial Control over Indigenous Heritage
7.2.2.2.2 The B.C. Heritage Conservation Act and Repatriation: Obstacle, Neutral Party or Facilitator?
7.2.3 British Columbia Treaty Process
7.2.3.1 The Process of Negotiating Comprehensive Treaties When Parties Share a Territory
7.2.3.2 Challenges Within and for the BCTC and the Treaty Process
7.2.4 Culture and Heritage in Final Agreements
7.2.4.1 Maa-nulth First Nations Final Agreement
7.2.4.2 Tsawwassen First Nation Final Agreement [TFNFA]
7.2.4.3 Tla´amin First Nation Final Agreement
7.2.5 Evaluation of Repatriation Chances in BC
References
Chapter 8: Evaluating the Position of Indigenous Sacred Cultural Heritage in Canadian Law
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Existing Repatriation Efforts Through Process-Oriented Models
8.3 Comparative Evaluation in Light of International Human Rights Law
8.3.1 Applying Standards and Obligations from the Human Rights Toolbox to the Canadian Legal Heritage Context
8.3.2 Measures Limiting the Right to Use and Control of Sacred Objects
8.3.2.1 Right of Access to and Use of Sacred Objects
8.3.2.2 Application of the Framework to Alberta
8.3.2.3 Application of Framework British Columbia Treaty Process
8.3.2.4 Application of Framework to British Columbia Beyond Treaty Process to a Sample Case
8.4 Concluding Remarks to Part III
References
Part IV: Repatriation of Sacred Indigenous Cultural Heritage Through the Law
Chapter 9: Repatriation Models
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Comparative Analysis
9.2.1 Comparison of the Different Repatriation Laws
9.2.2 Relationship Between the Goal Behind a Repatriation Law and the Adopted Legal Structure
9.2.3 Comparing the Relationship Between Indigenous Cultural Rights and Different Repatriation Laws
9.2.3.1 Human Rights Guidelines for Repatriation Frameworks
9.2.3.2 Human Rights Guidelines Applicable to National Cultural Heritage Law and Policy
9.3 Repatriation `Models´
9.3.1 Goal 1: Repatriation of Sacred Objects
9.3.1.1 Model: Mandatory Repatriation Provision Enshrined in Law
9.3.1.2 Model: Voluntary Negotiations Between a Museum and the Indigenous Community; Afterwards the Agreement Is Incorporated ...
9.3.2 Goal 2: Remedy Unequal Protection of Indigenous Religious/Cultural Rights
9.3.2.1 Model: Address Effects of Past Inequalities Through Repatriation and Strengthen Indigenous Cultural Rights Through Her...
9.3.3 Goal 3: Reconciling Different Sovereignties
9.3.3.1 Model: Modern Treaty Negotiations That Address Land Claims, Resource Rights, Cultural Rights, Governing Rights and Mor...
9.4 Conclusion to Chapter 9
References
Chapter 10: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
10.1 Introduction
10.2 How Should the Repatriation of Indigenous Sacred Cultural Heritage Be Regulated Legally in Light of International Cultura...
10.2.1 Repatriation-Specific Guidelines
10.2.2 Evaluating Whether State Measures on Sacred Indigenous Cultural Heritage Amount to a Human Rights Violation
10.2.3 Standards Arising Out of International Cultural Heritage Law
10.2.4 Different Mechanisms to Regulate Repatriation in Light of International Standards
10.3 What-If Anything-Can We Derive from the Findings of the Country Analysis in Light of the International Standards for the ...
10.3.1 Guidelines to Incorporate into National Cultural Heritage Law and Policy
10.4 Recommendations: Lessons for Future Repatriation Laws
10.4.1 General Lessons Applicable to Repatriations
10.4.1.1 Elements to Be Avoided
10.4.1.2 Elements to Be Included
10.4.1.3 Lessons for Museums
10.4.2 Transferability of Models to International Returns
10.5 Outlook
References
Bibliography
Primary Sources: International Law
Treaties
Case-Law
Other
Primary Sources: National Law
National Law: Canada
National Law: United States
Case-Law: Canada
Case-Law: United States
Other: Canada
Other: United States
Secondary Sources
Books, Book Chapters and Articles
Newspaper Articles
Online Sources
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