Renewable and Alternative Energy Resources

Front Cover
Renewable and Alternative Energy Resources
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
About the authors
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Energy resources and utilization
1.1 Sources and types of energy resources
1.1.1 Nonrenewable energy resources
1.1.1.1 The hidden cost of fossil fuels
1.1.2 Renewable energy resources
1.1.2.1 History of renewable energy
1.1.2.2 Need of renewable energy resources
1.1.2.2.1 Climate change
1.1.2.2.2 Peak fossil oil
1.1.2.2.3 Greenhouse gases
1.1.2.2.4 Energy security
1.1.3 Energy policies
1.1.3.1 Biofuel directive
1.1.3.2 Kyoto protocol
1.1.4 Biofuels
1.1.5 Countries with major dependency on nonrenewable energy
1.1.6 Emerging technologies
1.1.7 Future perspective
References
2 Nonrenewable energy resources
2.1 Nonrenewable energy resources
2.1.1 Coal
2.1.1.1 Global trends in production and trade of coal
2.1.1.2 Conversion of coal into electrical energy
2.1.1.3 Coal in production of steel
2.1.1.4 Liquefaction of coal
2.1.1.5 Use of coal in cement industry
2.1.1.6 Effects of coal mining on environment
2.1.1.7 Land disturbances caused by coal mines
2.1.1.8 Mine subsidence
2.1.1.9 Water pollution from coal mines
2.1.1.10 Air pollution
2.1.1.11 Noise pollution
2.1.1.12 Restoring the environment to its natural state
2.1.1.12.1 Rehabilitation
2.1.1.12.2 Overburden material classification
2.1.1.12.3 Land recontouring
2.1.1.12.4 Regeneration
2.1.1.13 Coal mine methane
2.1.1.13.1 Cleaner coal production
2.1.1.13.2 Coal washing
2.1.1.13.3 Particulate matter
2.1.1.13.4 Solutions to acid rain
2.1.1.13.5 Restoration of damaged environment
2.1.1.13.6 Alternative energy resources
2.1.1.13.7 Individual, national/state and international actions
2.1.1.13.8 Reduction of carbon dioxide in air
2.1.1.13.9 Reduction in vehicular emissions
2.1.1.13.10 Reduced energy consumption
2.1.1.13.11 Reduced waste consumption
2.1.1.13.12 Restoration of natural sinks
2.1.1.13.13 Miscellaneous options
2.1.1.14 Future of coal-based energy
2.1.2 Petroleum
2.1.2.1 History of petroleum
2.1.2.2 Chemistry of petroleum
2.1.2.3 Sources of petroleum
2.1.2.4 Formation of petroleum
2.1.2.5 Recovery of oil and gas
2.1.2.5.1 Primary recovery: natural drive and artificial lift
2.1.2.5.2 Secondary recovery: injection of gas or water
2.1.2.5.3 Enhanced recovery
2.1.2.6 Classification of crude oil
2.1.2.7 Geology of petroleum
2.1.2.8 Natural petroleum reservoirs
2.1.2.9 Extraction of petroleum
2.1.2.10 Petroleum and environment: bitumen and boreal forest
2.1.2.11 Refining of petroleum
2.1.2.12 Current petroleum industries
2.1.2.13 Use of petroleum
2.1.2.14 Future of petroleum
2.1.3 Natural gas
2.1.3.1 Chemical composition of natural gas
2.1.3.2 Typical combustion properties of natural gas
2.1.3.3 Composition and properties
2.1.3.4 Brief history of natural gas
2.1.3.5 Formation of natural gas
2.1.3.6 Methane as a natural gas
2.1.3.7 Types of natural gas
2.1.3.8 Use of natural gas
2.1.3.9 Production of electrical energy
2.1.3.10 Transportation fuel
2.1.3.11 Heating and cogeneration
2.1.3.11.1 Common combined heat and power configurations
2.1.3.12 Liquefied natural gas
2.1.3.13 Fueling of a growing market with liquefied natural gas
2.1.3.14 Greenhouse gas emissions
2.1.3.15 Impact on renewable energy
2.1.3.16 Propane
2.1.3.17 Benefits of liquefied petroleum gas
2.1.3.18 Future perspective
2.1.4 Nuclear power
2.1.4.1 Nuclear fission
2.1.4.1.1 Controlled nuclear fission
2.1.4.2 Nuclear fusion
2.1.4.2.1 Fusion technology
2.1.4.3 Nuclear reactors
2.1.4.4 Nuclear waste
2.1.4.5 The rise of nuclear power
2.1.4.6 The fall of nuclear power
2.1.4.7 Radioactive waste management
2.1.4.8 Types of radioactive wastes
2.1.4.8.1 Low-level waste
2.1.4.8.2 Intermediate-level waste
2.1.4.8.3 High-level waste
2.1.4.8.4 Very low-level waste
2.1.4.9 Mining of uranium for fabrication of fuel
2.1.4.10 Generation of electrical energy
2.1.4.11 Reprocessing of used fuel
2.1.4.12 Decommissioning of nuclear plants
2.1.4.12.1 Legacy wastes
2.1.4.12.2 Nonnuclear power wastes
2.1.4.12.3 Treatment and conditioning
2.1.4.12.4 Storage and disposal
2.1.4.13 Nuclear-based power projects
References
3 Future energy options: an overview
3.1 Shale gas
3.1.1 Origin of shale gas
3.1.2 Distinctive properties of shale gas
3.1.3 History of shale gas
3.1.4 Natural reserves of shale gas
3.1.5 Production and extraction of shale gas
3.1.5.1 Hydraulic fracturing
3.1.6 Shale gas in worldwide basins
3.1.7 Estimates of conservative shale gas basins
3.1.8 Highly dependent countries
3.1.9 Proper natural gas infrastructure
3.1.10 Importance of shale gas
3.1.11 Global shale gas reserves
3.1.12 Environmental impacts of shale gas
3.1.12.1 Contamination of natural water resources
3.1.12.2 Induced seismic vibrations
3.1.12.3 Release of greenhouse gases
3.1.12.4 Excessive utilization of water
3.1.12.5 Huge economic burden
3.1.13 Future of shale gas
3.2 Offshore wind energy and offshore wind farm
3.2.1 Offshore wind energy
3.2.2 Working of wind turbines
3.2.3 Types of offshore wind turbines
3.2.3.1 Fixed foundation offshore wind turbines
3.2.3.2 Floating offshore wind turbines
3.2.3.3 Vertical axis offshore wind turbines
3.2.4 Offshore wind farm
3.2.4.1 Localization of offshore wind farms
3.2.4.2 Components of offshore wind farm
3.2.4.3 Characteristics of offshore wind power
3.2.5 Major components of wind turbines
3.2.5.1 Nacelle
3.2.5.2 Rotor blades
3.2.5.3 Tower
3.2.6 Offshore wind energy resources
3.2.7 Commercial offshore wind energy generation
3.2.8 Transportation of wind generated energy
3.2.9 Economics of building and operating offshore wind farms
3.2.9.1 Investment costs
3.2.9.2 Energy cost
3.2.9.3 Offshore wind power by different countries
3.2.9.4 Harmful environmental consequences
3.2.9.4.1 Visual impacts
3.2.9.4.2 Noise impacts
3.2.9.4.3 Construction and decommissioning noises
3.2.9.4.4 Operational noises
3.2.10 Future energy projects
3.3 Carbon capture technology
3.3.1 Introduction of carbon capture technology
3.3.2 Working principle and capturing methods
3.3.3 Postcombustion processes
3.3.4 Precombustion processes
3.3.5 Oxyfuel combustion
3.3.6 Carbon dioxide separation technologies
3.3.6.1 Absorption
3.3.6.2 Adsorption
3.3.7 Chemical looping combustion
3.3.8 Membrane separation process
3.3.9 Hydrate based separation
3.3.10 Cryogenic distillation
3.3.11 Transportation of carbon dioxide
3.3.12 Storage of carbon dioxide
3.3.13 Impacts on environment
3.3.14 Global scenario
References
4 Solar thermal energy and photovoltaic systems
4.1 Solar thermal energy
4.1.1 Concentrated solar thermal systems
4.1.1.1 Types of concentrated solar thermal technology
4.1.1.1.1 Solar thermal storage
4.1.1.1.2 Solar water heating
4.1.1.1.3 Solar distillation
Method 1
Method 2
4.1.1.1.4 Other purification processes
4.1.1.2 Heating of swimming pool by solar energy
4.1.1.2.1 Working principle
4.1.1.2.2 Example of working of solar collector
4.1.1.3 Stand-alone solar rankine system
4.1.1.3.1 Storage tank
4.1.1.4 Hybrid system
4.1.2 Integrated solar combined cycle system
4.1.3 Combined cycle system
4.1.4 Combined power plant
4.1.5 Solar thermal power systems using concentrated solar energy
4.1.6 Solar ponds
4.1.6.1 Working of solar water pumping system
4.1.6.2 Sun drying
4.1.6.3 Integrated solar dryers
4.1.6.4 Distributed solar dryers
4.1.6.5 Solar cookers
4.1.7 Energy efficiency in buildings
4.1.7.1 Low, passive, zero and plus energy buildings
4.1.7.1.1 Type 0—Standard building
4.1.7.1.2 Type I—Low energy building
4.1.7.1.3 Type II—Passive energy building
4.1.7.1.4 Type III—Zero energy building
4.1.7.1.5 Type IV—Plus energy building
4.1.7.2 Working of energy efficient buildings
4.1.7.3 Refining the design
4.1.7.3.1 Direct gain
4.1.7.3.2 Indirect gain
4.1.7.3.3 Thermal storage wall systems
4.1.7.3.4 Roof pond systems
4.1.8 Indirect gain system rules of thumb for thermal storage walls
4.1.8.1 The principle of evaporative cooling
4.1.8.1.1 Dry bulb temperature
4.1.8.1.2 Wet bulb temperature
4.1.8.1.3 Working of evaporative air conditioner
4.1.8.1.4 Evaporative cooling
4.1.8.1.5 Importance of evaporative cooling
4.1.8.2 Absorption cooling system
4.1.8.2.1 Working of absorption cooling system
4.1.8.2.2 Absorption cooling in commercial buildings
4.1.8.3 Desiccant cooling systems
4.1.8.3.1 Solid desiccant cooling
4.1.8.3.2 Liquid desiccant cooling
4.1.9 Greenhouse gases—a severe atmospheric constrain
4.1.10 Solar furnace
4.1.10.1 Historical background of solar furnace
4.1.10.2 Working of solar furnace
4.1.10.3 Use of solar furnace for different applications
4.1.10.4 Temperature range of solar furnaces
4.1.11 Solar constant (solar irradiance)
4.1.11.1 Solar heating
4.1.11.2 Extraterrestrial and terrestrial spectra
4.1.11.3 Geometry of solar radiations
4.1.11.3.1 Diurnal and annual variations
4.1.11.3.2 Probable outcomes of predicting solar output
4.1.12 Introduction to solar radiation measurements
4.1.12.1 Ultraviolet measurements
4.1.12.1.1 Shortwave measurements: Direct, diffuse, and global
4.1.12.1.2 Longwave (infrared) measurements
4.1.12.1.3 Albedo/reflection measurements
4.1.12.2 Net radiation measurements
4.1.12.3 Sunshine duration measurements
4.1.13 Solar thermal energy collectors
4.1.13.1 The use of solar heat
4.1.13.2 Flat plate collectors
4.1.13.3 Solar concentrating collector
4.1.13.3.1 Parabolic dish collectors
4.1.13.3.2 Parabolic trough collectors
4.1.13.4 Power tower
4.1.13.5 Central receiver systems
4.1.13.6 Stationary concentrating collector
4.1.13.7 CPC collectors
4.1.13.8 Uses of CPC
4.1.14 Heating during industrial processes
4.1.14.1 Heat pump systems
4.1.14.2 Recent advances in heating pumps
4.1.15 Selective absorption surfaces
4.1.16 Number of covers
4.1.17 Thermal radiation law
4.1.17.1 Wien displacement law
4.1.17.2 Emissivity
4.1.17.3 Kirchoff’s law
4.1.17.4 Lambert’s law
4.1.18 Heat transfer
4.1.18.1 Three modes of heat transfer
4.1.18.1.1 Conduction
4.1.18.1.2 Convection
4.1.18.2 Optical radiation hazards
4.1.18.3 Control measures
4.1.19 Future of solar based energy systems
4.2 Solar photovoltaic system
4.2.1 Doping
4.2.1.1 n-Doping
4.2.1.2 p-Doping
4.2.2 Electronic band structure in doped semiconductors
4.2.3 Semiconductors and doping
4.2.3.1 p-Type
4.2.3.2 n-Type
4.2.4 Energy of photon
4.2.5 Fermi energy levels
4.2.6 Importance of fermi energy levels
4.2.7 Intrinsic semiconductor
4.2.7.1 Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor
4.2.7.2 PN-junction
4.2.7.2.1 Diffusion
4.2.7.2.2 Electric field
4.2.7.2.3 Photovoltaic effect
4.2.7.3 Efficiency of solar cells
4.2.7.4 Limits to cell efficiency
4.2.7.5 The critical SQ limit assumptions
4.2.8 Materials of photovoltaic cells
4.2.8.1 Silicon—The most popular material for solar cells
4.2.8.2 Polycrystalline thin films
4.2.8.2.1 Copper indium diselenide
4.2.8.2.2 Cadmium telluride
4.2.8.2.3 Gallium arsenide
4.2.9 Types of cells
4.2.9.1 Crystalline silicon
4.2.9.2 Amorphous silicon
4.2.10 Use of batteries in PV systems
4.2.11 Standards for SPV
4.2.12 Stand-alone systems
4.2.13 Solar photovoltaic water pumping system
4.2.13.1 Use of AC or DC pump sets
4.2.13.2 SPV technology
4.2.13.3 Basic structural design
4.2.13.4 Units of salt concentration in seawater
4.2.13.5 Peculiar features
4.2.13.6 Grid connected photovoltaic systems
4.2.13.7 Standalone system
4.2.14 Grid-tied solar systems
4.2.14.1 Advantages of grid-tied systems
4.2.14.1.1 Save more money with net metering
4.2.14.1.2 The utility grid—a virtual battery
4.2.14.1.3 Equipments for grid-tied solar systems
4.2.14.2 Grid-tie inverter or microinverters, power meter
4.2.14.2.1 Grid-tie inverter
4.2.14.2.2 Microinverters
4.2.14.2.3 Power meter
4.2.14.2.4 Grid-interactive invertor
4.2.14.2.5 Grid-interactive component design and cost
4.2.15 Pace-based solar power—the power of the future
4.2.15.1 Solar power satellites (powersats)
4.2.15.2 Benefits of space based solar power
4.2.16 Nanotechnology in solar cells
4.2.16.1 Improvements in solar cells
4.2.16.2 Solar cells: Nanotechnology applications under development
4.2.16.3 Titanium dioxide nanotubes
4.2.16.4 Combination of carbon nanotubes and bucky balls
4.2.16.5 Use of organic molecules
4.2.16.6 Self-repairing organic solar cells
4.2.16.7 Working of thermoelectric devices
4.2.16.8 Improvements in solar photovoltaics
4.2.16.9 Emerging policies
4.2.16.10 Suitability of grid connected system
4.2.17 Recent advancements in solar photovoltaics
References
5 Wind energy and its harnessing systems
5.1 Wind energy and wind power
5.1.1 History of wind energy
5.1.2 Current status of wind energy
5.1.3 Modern wind turbines
5.1.4 Types of wind turbines
5.1.4.1 Horizontal axis wind turbine
5.1.4.2 Vertical axis wind turbine
5.1.5 Horizontal axis wind turbine
5.1.5.1 Dutch windmill
5.1.5.2 Multi blade water pumping windmill
5.1.5.3 High-speed propeller type wind machines
5.1.5.4 Lift and drag-type
5.1.6 Vertical axis wind turbine
5.1.6.1 Savonius rotor
5.1.6.2 Darrieus wind turbine
5.1.6.3 Giromill
5.1.7 Off-shore wind farm
5.1.7.1 Thanet off-shore wind farm
5.1.7.2 Cape wind farm
5.1.8 Aerodynamics of wind turbine
5.1.9 Energy extraction of a single wind turbine
5.1.10 Wind speed patterns
5.1.11 Wind speed distribution
5.1.12 Micro-meteorological range: turbulence
5.1.13 Distribution of wind direction
5.1.14 Power curve of a wind turbine
5.1.15 Uncertainty in measurement of power curves
5.1.16 Energy of wind
5.1.16.1 Power density and power output
5.1.16.2 Power curve
5.1.16.3 Cut-in and cut-out wind speeds
5.1.16.4 Weibull distribution
5.1.16.5 Wind rose diagrams
5.1.16.6 Wind rose (speed distribution)
5.1.16.7 Wind data
5.1.16.8 Variation of wind speed
5.1.16.9 Beaufort wind scale
5.1.17 Wind energy regional resource centers
5.1.18 Resource centers
5.1.19 Regulating systems for rotor
5.1.20 Modes of wind power generation
5.1.20.1 Stand-alone mode
5.1.20.2 Backup mode
5.1.20.3 Grid-connected wind turbine generators
5.1.21 Parts of a horizontal axis wind turbine generator
5.1.21.1 Thrust bearings
5.1.21.2 Cut-in speed
5.1.21.3 Rated output power and rate output wind speed
5.1.21.4 Cut-out speed
5.1.22 Advantages of wind power
5.1.23 Challenges of wind power
5.1.24 Wind farms
5.1.25 Wind resource surveys
5.1.26 Energy demand
5.1.27 Performance preferences
5.1.28 Probable risks in investment
5.1.29 Benefits of wind energy
5.1.30 Weather stations
5.1.31 Mathematical model
5.1.32 Wind energy potential
5.1.33 Controllable grid interface
5.1.34 Testing capabilities
5.1.35 Grid connections
5.1.36 Reactive power compensation
5.1.37 Frequency and power control
5.1.38 Wind energy penetration
5.1.39 Wind power capacity penetration
5.1.40 Maximum share of wind power
5.1.41 Wind speed, power input and annual output of energy
5.1.41.1 Microprocessor based control system
5.1.41.2 Need for control
5.1.41.3 Types of control systems
5.1.41.3.1 Passive control systems
5.1.41.3.2 Active control systems
5.1.41.4 Functions of control system
5.1.42 Levels of controls in wind farm
5.1.42.1 Component control system
5.1.42.2 Power output
5.1.42.3 Speed of turbine
5.1.42.4 Voltage and frequency
5.1.42.5 Miscellaneous
5.1.43 Methods of wind-energy-conversion-system control
5.1.44 Competitiveness of wind energy
5.1.45 Basic cost of wind energy
5.1.46 Economic benefits of wind energy
5.1.47 Future of wind energy
References
6 Hydropower energy generating systems
6.1 Small hydropower plants
6.2 Classification of hydropower plants
6.3 Classification of hydraulic turbines
6.3.1 Reaction turbine
6.3.2 Axial flow turbines
6.3.3 Tube turbine
6.3.4 Bulb turbine
6.3.5 Straflo turbine
6.3.6 Impulse turbines
6.3.7 Pelton turbine
6.3.8 Turgo turbine
6.3.9 Ossberger turbines
6.4 Selection of turbine on the basis of specific speed
6.5 Types of small hydropower schemes
6.5.1 Run-of-river scheme
6.5.2 Pressure forebay
6.5.3 Civil works
6.6 Components of hydroelectric power plants
6.6.1 Reservoir
6.6.2 Dam
6.6.3 Trash rack
6.6.4 Forebay
6.6.5 Surge tank
6.6.6 Penstock
6.6.7 Spillway
6.6.8 Power house
6.6.9 Prime movers of hydro turbines
6.6.10 Draft tube
6.7 Important components of hydroelectric power plants
6.7.1 Hydroelectric dams
6.7.2 Artificial water reservoir
6.7.3 Intake or control gates
6.7.4 Penstock and shaft
6.7.5 Water turbines
6.7.6 Hydroelectric generators
6.8 Low head and very low head hydro power generation
6.9 Working principle of electrical generators
6.10 Working theory of induction generator
6.11 Self-excited induction generation
6.12 Applications of induction generators
6.13 Isolated induction generator
6.14 Installation of small hydroelectric projects with unique features
6.14.1 Use of water power to fight the poverty
6.14.2 Basics of micro-hydro power
6.14.3 Environmental impacts of hydropower
6.14.4 The power to recharge communities
6.14.5 Cost of micro hydropower plant
6.15 Western yamuna canal hydel Yamunanagar
6.16 Kakroi micro hydel project
6.17 The outlook for the hydropower
6.18 Long-term global scenarios for hydropower
6.19 Future of hydroelectric power projects
References
7 Power generation by ocean energy
7.1 Tidal energy
7.1.1 Types of tidal plants
7.1.2 Barrage tidal plants
7.1.3 Tidal range
7.1.4 Different types of tidal energy systems
7.1.4.1 Tidal barrages
7.1.4.2 Tidal stream
7.1.5 The main tidal-power utilization technologies
7.1.5.1 One-way, single-basin generation
7.1.5.2 Two-way, single-basin generation
7.1.5.3 Multiple-basin schemes
7.1.6 Waves and tidal energy
7.1.7 Operational tidal power plants
7.1.8 Tidal power plants (barrage)
7.1.9 Tidal power plants (tidal device)
7.1.10 Main turbine type
7.1.10.1 Bulb turbine
7.1.10.2 Straflo turbine
7.1.10.3 Tubular turbine
7.1.10.4 Reversible pitch turbine
7.1.10.5 Rim generator turbine
7.1.10.5.1 Flood pumping
7.1.10.5.2 Double-basin system
7.1.10.5.3 Dams and turbines
7.1.10.5.4 Two-way tidal barrage generation scheme
7.1.11 Tidal power generation
7.1.12 Alternatives of tidal power turbines
7.1.13 Fundamental concepts about tides
7.1.14 Potential for tidal power
7.1.15 Wave energy technologies
7.1.16 Tidal power technologies
7.1.17 Environmental impacts
7.1.18 Preliminary feasibility study
7.1.19 Different tidal power plants
7.1.19.1 Working of different tidal power plants
7.1.19.1.1 Single-basin-one-way cycle
7.1.19.1.2 Single-basin two-way cycle
7.1.19.1.3 Single-basin two-way cycle with pump storage
7.1.19.1.4 Double-basin type
7.1.19.1.5 Double-basin with pumping
7.1.19.2 Power generation during ebb tide
7.1.19.3 Grid connection
7.1.19.4 Measurements
7.1.19.5 Global scenario
7.1.20 Ocean wave energy
7.1.20.1 Ocean wave energy resource
7.1.20.2 Effects of tides on the breaking waves
7.1.20.3 Cost of wave energy
7.1.21 Methodology for wave power data generation
7.1.21.1 Wave data
7.1.21.2 Spectral data generation
7.1.21.3 Deep-water, transitional and shallow-water waves
7.1.22 Terms relating waves to water depth
7.1.22.1 Deep-water waves
7.1.22.2 Transitional waves
7.1.22.3 Shallow water waves
7.1.22.4 Breaking shallow water waves
7.1.22.5 Breaking deep-water waves
7.1.23 Development of mathematical model
7.1.23.1 Sea wave energy
7.1.24 Converting wave energy into electricity–wave energy conversion
7.1.24.1 Wave devices
7.1.24.1.1 Attenuator
7.1.24.1.2 Point absorber
7.1.24.1.3 Oscillating wave surge converter
7.1.24.1.4 Oscillating water column
7.1.24.1.5 Overtopping/terminator device
7.1.24.1.6 Submerged pressure differential
7.1.24.2 Bulge wave
7.1.24.3 Rotating mass
7.1.24.4 Miscellaneous devices
7.1.25 Parameters
7.1.26 Wave profile devices
7.1.27 Orbital motion of waves
7.1.28 Pelamis wave energy converter
7.1.29 Oscillating water column–a known wave energy device
7.1.30 Wave capture device
7.1.31 Ocean waves and oscillating systems
7.1.31.1 Buoyant moored device
7.1.31.2 Hinged contour device
7.1.32 Oscillating water column
7.1.33 Wave energy test facilities
7.1.33.1 Economics of wave power
7.1.34 Future trends of wave based energy resources
7.2 Ocean thermal energy conversion
7.2.1 Working of ocean thermal energy convertors
7.2.2 Usefulness of ocean thermal energy conversion system
7.2.3 Power generation from ocean-thermal-energy-conversion
7.2.4 Closed cycle
7.2.4.1 Working of closed cycle ocean-thermal-energy-conversion
7.2.4.2 Work done in the closed Anderson cycle
7.2.5 Benefits and opportunities of ocean-thermal-energy-conversion
7.2.6 Ocean-thermal-energy-conversion power plant: operational system
7.2.7 Ocean-thermal-energy-conversion power plant: future expectations
7.2.8 Ocean thermal energy conversion: global perspective
7.2.9 Global scenario and future perspective
References
8 Geothermal energy production
8.1 Geothermal energy
8.2 Three parts of earth’s interior
8.2.1 Earth’s crust
8.2.2 Earth’s mantle
8.2.3 Earth’s core
8.3 Plate tectonics theory—lithosphere plates of earth
8.3.1 Plate boundaries
8.3.2 Power just beneath the feet
8.3.3 Risk of quakes
8.3.4 Geothermal field
8.3.5 Geothermal gradients
8.3.6 Geothermal resources
8.3.7 Hydrothermal resources
8.4 Vapor-dominated geothermal plants
8.4.1 Geo-pressured resource
8.4.2 Magma
8.5 Geothermal power generation
8.6 Liquid-dominated geothermal plants
8.6.1 Direct steam systems
8.6.2 Flash steam systems
8.6.3 Ground source heat pumps
8.7 Types of geothermal energy systems
8.7.1 Direct use and district heating systems
8.7.2 Direct use of geothermal resources
8.8 Geothermal technologies
8.9 Applicability of geothermal energy resources
8.10 Detailed insight of lithosphere/geosphere and all relevant processes
8.10.1 Lithosphere/geosphere
8.10.2 Rock cycle
8.10.3 Geologic time scale
8.10.4 Concept of uniformitarianism
8.10.5 Composition of rocks
8.10.6 Characteristics of igneous rocks
8.10.6.1 Types of igneous rocks
8.10.6.2 Igneous rocks and bowen reaction series
8.10.7 Characteristics of sedimentary rocks
8.10.8 Characteristics of metamorphic rocks
8.10.8.1 Heat and metamorphism
8.10.8.2 Pressure and metamorphism
8.10.8.3 Chemical action of fluids
8.10.8.4 Types of metamorphism
8.10.8.5 Common metamorphic rocks
8.10.9 Structure of earth and isostacy
8.10.10 Plate tectonics
8.10.11 Crustal formation processes
8.10.11.1 Continental crust
8.10.11.2 Igneous activity and continents
8.10.11.3 Oceanic crust
8.10.12 Mountain building and evolution
8.10.13 Folding and faulting
8.10.14 Earthquakes
8.10.14.1 Earthquake waves
8.10.14.2 Earthquake measurement
8.10.14.3 Earthquake damage and destruction
8.10.15 Volcanism
8.10.16 Physiography of the earth’s terrestrial surface
8.10.16.1 Cratons
8.10.16.2 Mountain belts
8.10.16.3 Continental margin
8.10.16.4 Topography of terrestrial surface
8.10.17 Physiography of ocean basins
8.10.17.1 Origin of ocean basins
8.10.17.2 Topography of ocean basins
8.10.17.3 Ocean basin configuration
8.10.18 Models of landform development
8.10.19 Weathering
8.10.19.1 Products of weathering
8.10.19.2 Chemical weathering
8.10.19.3 Physical weathering
8.10.19.4 Biological weathering
8.10.20 Landform of weathering
8.10.20.1 Regolith and soil
8.10.20.2 Limestone landforms
8.10.20.3 Periglacial landforms
8.10.21 Introduction to soil
8.10.21.1 Organic activity
8.10.21.2 Translocation
8.10.21.3 Soil texture
8.10.21.4 Soil pH
8.10.21.5 Soil color
8.10.21.6 Soil profiles
8.10.22 Soil pedogenesis and pedogenic processes
8.10.23 Soil classification
8.10.23.1 The United States soil classification system
8.10.23.2 Canadian system of soil classification
8.10.24 Erosion and deposition
8.10.24.1 Energy of erosion
8.10.24.2 Erosion sequence
8.10.24.3 Detachment
8.10.24.4 Entrainment
8.10.24.5 Entrainment forces
8.10.24.6 Transport
8.10.24.7 Deposition
8.10.25 Hillslope processes and mass movements
8.10.25.1 Inputs and outputs to hillslope system
8.10.25.2 Mass movement and hillslope stability
8.10.25.3 Water, sediment transport, and hillslopes
8.10.25.4 Mass movement in noncohesive materials
8.10.25.5 Mass movement in cohesive materials
8.10.25.6 Mass movement on hard rock slopes
8.10.26 Stream flow and fluvial processes
8.10.26.1 Long profile of streams
8.10.26.2 Stream discharge
8.10.26.3 Velocity and turbulence
8.10.26.4 Sediment transport
8.10.27 Fluvial landforms
8.10.27.1 Stream channel types
8.10.27.2 Stream channel features
8.10.27.3 Floodplain
8.10.27.4 Alluvial fans and deltas
8.10.28 Glaciation
8.10.28.1 Occurrence and types of glaciers
8.10.29 Glacial processes
8.10.29.1 Growth of glaciers
8.10.29.2 Glacier movement
8.10.29.3 Glacier mass balance
8.10.30 Landforms of glaciation
8.10.30.1 Glacial erosion
8.10.30.2 Glacial deposition
8.10.31 Periglacial processes and landforms
8.10.31.1 Permafrost
8.10.31.2 Periglacial processes: weathering
8.10.31.3 Periglacial processes: ground ice
8.10.31.4 Periglacial processes: mass movement
8.10.31.5 Periglacial processes: Erosion
8.10.31.6 Periglacial landforms
8.10.32 Eolian processes and landforms
8.10.32.1 Threshold and terminal fall velocities
8.10.32.2 Sand transport
8.10.32.3 Erosional landforms
8.10.32.4 Depositional landforms
8.10.32.5 Sand dune formation
8.10.32.6 Desert dunes
8.10.32.7 Coastal dunes
8.10.32.8 Loess deposits
8.10.33 Interaction of lithosphere with other spheres
8.11 Future of geothermal energy
References
9 Renewable energy from biomass
9.1 Biomass—renewable energy from plants and animals
9.2 Biomass resources and bio-renewable resources
9.3 Biofuel
9.3.1 Ethanol
9.3.2 Biodiesel
9.3.3 Biogas
9.4 Benefits of anaerobic digestion and biogas
9.4.1 Biogas formation
9.4.2 Producer gas and its constituents
9.5 Bioenergy conversion technologies
9.5.1 Thermal conversion
9.5.1.1 Combustion
9.5.1.2 Pyrolysis and torre faction
9.5.2 Thermochemical conversion
9.5.3 Gasification
9.5.4 Bio-chemical conversion
9.5.4.1 Anaerobic digestion
9.5.4.2 Fermentation
9.5.5 Chemical conversion
9.5.5.1 Artificial anaerobic digestion
9.6 Biogas technology
9.6.1 Factors affecting the biogas production
9.6.2 Biogas plant
9.6.2.1 Fixed dome plants
9.6.2.2 Floating drum plants
9.6.2.3 Deenbandhu biogas plant
9.6.3 Treatment of human excreta
9.6.3.1 Energy recovery from the combustion of municipal solid waste
9.6.3.2 Energy recovery from combustion
9.6.3.3 Mass burn process
9.6.3.4 Landfill gas
9.6.3.5 Landfill gas collection
9.6.3.6 Landfill gas composition
9.6.4 The GE’s Jenbacher landfill gas concept
9.6.5 Turn liquid waste into energy with anaerobic digestion
9.6.6 Sugar and distillery water
9.6.7 Alcohol distillery effluent
9.7 Black liquor gasification
9.8 Black liquor gasifiers and system integration
9.9 Biomass cogeneration systems
9.9.1 Processing techniques
9.9.1.1 Steam generation
9.9.1.2 Power generation
9.9.2 Power transmission
9.10 Rice milling
9.10.1 Grading and cleaning
9.10.2 Milling
9.10.3 Technology and technical know how
9.11 Ethanol from biomass
9.11.1 History of ethanol
9.11.2 Preparation of ethanol
9.11.3 Global statistics about ethanol
9.11.4 Importance of cellulosic ethanol
9.12 Production and utilization of biodiesel
9.13 Major barriers and challenges
9.14 Environmental benefits
9.15 Biomass power is carbon neutral
9.16 Future of biomass-based energy resources
References
10 Hydrogen and fuel cells
10.1 Fuel cell
10.2 Working of fuel cells
10.3 Design of fuel cells
10.4 Basic principles of operation
10.5 Working of fuel processors
10.6 Hydrogen fuel cell
10.7 Direct methanol fuel cell
10.8 Different types of fuel cells
10.8.1 Alkali fuel cells
10.8.2 Molten carbonate fuel cells
10.8.3 Phosphoric acid fuel cells
10.8.4 Solid oxide fuel cells
10.9 Elements of proton exchange membrane fuel cells
10.9.1 Working principle
10.9.2 Advantages of the fuel cell technology
10.10 Types of electrolytes in fuel cells
10.10.1 Fuel cell with basic electrolyte
10.10.2 Fuel cells with an acidic electrolyte
10.11 Hydrogen oxygen fuel electrical cell
10.12 Introduction of hybrid electric vehicles
10.13 Polymer electrolyte fuel cells
10.14 Microbial fuel cell
10.14.1 History and evolution of the microbial fuel cells
10.14.2 Working of microbial fuel cells
10.14.3 Applications for microbial fuel cells
10.14.3.1 Wastewater treatment
10.14.3.2 Commercial waste treatment
10.15 Hydrogen generation
10.15.1 Efficiency of entire process
10.15.2 Derivation
10.15.3 Free energy changes
10.15.4 Determination of standard state free energy changes by using gibbs free energy
10.15.5 Determination of standard state free energy changes by change in entropy and change in enthalpy
10.15.6 Using equilibrium constants to determine the standard state free energy changes
10.15.7 Using cell potentials to determine standard state free energy changes
10.15.8 Helmholtz free energy
10.16 Comparison of electrolysis and the fuel cell process
10.17 Various fuel cell types and their operating characteristics
10.18 Hydrogen basics
10.18.1 The emergence of hydrogen based fuel
10.18.2 Technological description
10.18.3 Untapped potential
10.18.4 Production of hydrogen
10.18.5 Uses and applications of hydrogen
10.18.6 Working of entire setup
10.18.7 Thermochemical processes
10.18.8 Electrolytic processes
10.18.9 Biological processes
10.19 Steam methane reforming
10.20 Costs of hydrogen supply
10.20.1 Hydrogen production cost analysis
10.20.2 Hydrogen appearance and characteristics
10.20.3 Uses and applications of hydrogen
10.20.4 Characteristics and safety of hydrogen
10.20.5 Hydrogen applications
10.20.6 Liquid storage systems
10.20.7 Gaseous storage systems
10.20.8 Hydrogen basics storage
10.20.9 Solid state hydrogen storage
10.20.10 Benefits of hydrogen based energy resources
10.21 Uses and applications of hydrogen
10.21.1 Use of hydrogen in rocket fuels
10.21.2 Hydrogen fuel cells produce electricity
10.21.3 Hydrogen based motor vehicles
10.22 The refuelling challenge
10.23 Turbopumps for liquid rocket engines
10.24 Engine requirements
10.25 Gas generator cycle
10.26 Gas hydrates
10.26.1 Importance of gas hydrates
10.26.2 Occurrence of methane hydrates
10.26.3 Gas hydrates: an unconventional resource horizon
10.26.4 Global reserves of gas hydrates
10.27 Recent advances in fuel cell technology
References
11 Hybrid energy and transmission systems
11.1 Hybrid systems of energy
11.2 Preference of hybrid energy resources
11.2.1 The case for “hybrid” renewable energy systems
11.2.2 Loop holes in the energy system
11.3 Wind photovoltaic hybrid system
11.3.1 Wind diesel hybrid systems
11.3.2 Photovoltaic diesel hybrid system
11.3.2.1 Working of photovoltaic diesel hybrid system
11.3.2.2 Advantages of a photovoltaic diesel hybrid system
11.4 Hybrid electric vehicles
11.4.1 Preferred use of electric vehicles
11.4.2 A cleaner alternative
11.4.3 Cost and savings
11.4.4 Domestic energy independence
11.5 Hydrogen fuel cell features
11.5.1 Differences between fuel cell cars and other electric vehicles
11.5.2 Emissions from hybrid and plug-in electric vehicles
11.5.3 Electricity sources and emissions
11.6 Compare electricity sources and annual vehicle emissions
11.6.1 National averages
11.6.2 Direct and well-to-wheel emissions
11.7 Fuel cell electric vehicles
11.7.1 Environmental benefits of fuel cell electric vehicles
11.7.2 Mode of action of fuel cells
11.8 Emerging technologies of hybrid energy systems
References
12 Energy and global environment
12.1 Climate change and energy transition
12.2 Recent scenarios and pathways toward decarbonization
12.3 Climate change and energy
12.3.1 Climate change
12.3.2 Important consequences of climate change
12.3.3 Environmental effects
12.3.4 Human impacts
12.3.5 Energy efficiency and renewable energy
12.3.6 Multidisciplinary nature of environmental science
12.3.7 Scope of environmental studies
12.3.8 Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies
12.3.9 Importance of environmental studies
12.3.10 Components of an environment
12.3.10.1 Producers
12.3.10.2 Consumers
12.3.10.3 Decomposers
12.4 Biogeochemical cycles
12.4.1 Carbon cycle
12.4.2 Nitrogen cycle
12.4.3 Hydrologic (water) cycle
12.4.4 Phosphorous cycle
12.4.5 Sulfur cycle
12.4.6 Oxygen cycle
12.5 Ecological pyramids
12.5.1 Types
12.5.1.1 Pyramid of energy
12.5.1.2 Pyramid of numbers
12.5.1.2.1 Upright pyramid of number
12.5.1.2.2 Partly upright pyramid of number
12.5.1.2.3 Inverted pyramid of number
12.5.1.3 Pyramid of biomass
12.5.1.3.1 Upright pyramid of biomass
12.5.1.3.2 Inverted pyramid of biomass
12.6 Ecosystem
12.6.1 Ecosystem goods and services
12.6.2 Food chain and its types
12.6.2.1 Grazing food chain
12.6.2.2 Detritus food chain
12.6.3 Food web: concept and applications
12.6.3.1 10% law
12.6.3.2 Terrestrial ecosystems
12.6.4 Forest ecosystem
12.6.5 Grassland ecosystem
12.6.6 Desert ecosystem
12.6.7 Mountains ecosystem
12.6.8 Terrestrial ecosystem
12.6.9 Aquatic ecosystem
12.6.9.1 Organisms found in aquatic ecosystems
12.6.10 Glacier ecosystems
12.6.10.1 Life happens under the ice
12.6.11 Antarctic ecosystem
12.6.12 Greenland ecosystem
12.7 Global emissions by toxic gases
12.7.1 Global emissions by economic sector
12.7.2 Effects of air pollution
12.7.3 Air pollution
12.7.4 Acidification
12.7.5 Eutrophication
12.7.6 Ground level ozone
12.7.7 Particulate matter
12.8 Control measures
12.8.1 Control measures in industrial centers
12.9 Water pollution: an introduction
12.9.1 Common inorganic pollutants of water
12.9.1.1 Alkalinity
12.9.1.1.1 Arsenic (As)
12.9.1.1.2 Barium (Ba)
12.9.1.2 Hardness
12.9.1.2.1 Chloride (Cl−)
12.9.1.2.2 Copper (Cu)
12.9.1.2.3 Iron (Fe)
12.9.1.2.4 Lead (Pb)
12.9.1.2.5 Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
12.9.1.2.6 Manganese (Mn)
12.9.1.2.7 Nitrate or nitrate nitrogen
12.9.1.2.8 Sulfate (SO4−2)
12.9.2 Organic pollutants
12.9.3 Total suspended solids
12.9.4 Suspended matter
12.10 Thermal pollution
12.10.1 Sources of thermal pollution
12.10.1.1 Nuclear power plants
12.10.1.2 Coal-fired power plants
12.10.1.3 Industrial effluents
12.10.1.4 Domestic sewage
12.10.2 Hydroelectric power
12.10.3 Thermal pollution in streams by human activities
12.10.4 Radioactive isotopes
12.10.5 Groundwater depletion
12.10.6 Soil pollution
12.10.7 Climate change
12.11 Scientific evidence for warming of the climate system is unequivocal
12.11.1 Intergovernmental panel on climate change
12.11.2 Real impacts of climate change
12.11.3 Causes of climate change
12.11.4 Harmful effects of climate change
12.11.5 Global warming versus climate change
12.11.6 Adverse effects of global warming
12.11.6.1 Melting of glaciers
12.11.6.2 Sudden climate change
12.11.6.3 Droughts
12.11.6.4 Diseases
12.11.6.5 Hurricanes frequency
12.11.6.6 Agricultural problems
12.11.6.7 Global climate change
12.11.6.8 Impacts of climate change on human health
12.11.6.9 Global warming potential
12.12 Sources of greenhouse gas emissions
12.12.1 Global forest resource
12.12.2 Importance of forest resources
12.12.3 Uses of forest resources
12.12.4 Functions of forests
12.12.5 Productive functions of the forests
12.12.6 Forest conservation acts of different countries
12.13 Conservation of biodiversity
12.13.1 Biological resources
12.13.2 Ways to conserve energy
12.13.3 Need for water management
12.13.4 Remedial action related to release of hazardous substance law and legal definition
12.14 Ecological succession
12.14.1 Types of ecological succession
12.14.2 Significance of ecological succession
12.14.3 Biodiversity
12.14.4 Genetic diversity
12.14.5 Species diversity
12.14.6 Ecosystem diversity
12.14.7 Importance of biodiversity in environment
12.15 Conservation of biodiversity
12.15.1 Strategies for conservation of biodiversity
12.15.1.1 Conservation methods
12.15.1.1.1 In situ conservation
12.15.1.1.2 Ex situ conservation
12.15.2 Biodiversity hotspot
12.15.2.1 List of biodiversity hotspots
12.15.2.2 Population growth
12.15.2.3 Malthusian theory
12.15.2.3.1 Malthusian theory of population
12.15.2.3.2 Criticisms on theory
12.15.2.4 Introduction to logistic curve theory
12.15.2.4.1 Assumptions of logistic curve theory
12.15.2.4.2 Explanation to logistic curve theory
12.15.2.4.3 Criticisms of logistic curve theory
12.15.2.4.4 Conclusion to logistic curve theory
12.15.2.4.5 Logistic growth
12.16 Control strategies for conservation of environment
References
Index
Back Cover