Cover
Reading Virgil
Title
Copyright
Contents
Illustrations
Maps
Preface
Abbreviations and other conventions
Introduction: Virgil and the Aeneid
Life of Virgil
Early life, looks, health
Retiring nature
Summary of writings: Aeneid and Rome’s origins
Compositional technique
Recitations
Augustus’ keen interest
Death
Virgil’s wishes ignored
Critical reactions
Servius on the nature of the Aeneid and its praise of Augustus’ parentage
Rome in the first century BC
Rome’s rise to power
The end of the republic and rise of Octavian/Augustus
Maecenas’ wooing of Virgil
Virgil’s hopes of Octavian/Augustus
Virgil’s early plans for an epic
The Aeneid and its forerunners
Homer
Virgil’s use of Naevius’ ‘Punic War’ epic
Naevius’ use of Aeneas
Naevius’ use of Venus
Ennius imitates Homer: a nation’s destiny
Ennius’ use of the present tense
Post-Ennian epic: battles in verse
Virgil’s epic brand: Romanised history, myth, morals and politics
The advantages of Virgil’s epic concept
Book 1: Rome, Troy and Carthage
The storm, Neptune and Venus
Jupiter: Rome’s national god
Virgil and Augustus (i)
Virgil and Augustus (ii)
Aeneas and Dido: old Troy, new Carthage
Aeneas and his men
Aeneas and Dido: immigrant co-founders of Carthage?
Book 2: Sources for the Trojan war
Aeneas heroised
The tragic dimension of the Aeneid
The structure of Book 2
Aeneas’ account: absolving a losing hero
Aeneas: some questions
Aeneas
Not a modern hero
The ethical hero
The stoic Aeneas: a man of few words
Aeneas: no superman (i)
Aeneas: no superman (ii)
The hero who obeys
Gods and fate
Gods: what the poet makes of them
‘Dignifying Rome’s foundation’
Gods human and divine
The gods’ commitment to Rome
Making the incredible credible: the poet’s art
Fate as historical process
Servius
Glossary of literary terms
Notes for the reader
Help with the text
Grammar
Metre and verse in the Aeneid
Heavy and light syllables
Elision
Pronunciation
Exercise
The hexameter
Caesura
Exercises
Verse and sentence structure
Stress and ictus
Rules of word-accent
Exercise
Notes on Virgil’s style
Suggestions for further reading
Maps
Book 1 Aeneas’ mission: from storm to refuge
1.1–33: Introduction – Juno’s anger and the founding of Rome
1.1–7: My theme – a much-travelled, long-suffering Trojan on a mission to found a city and the Roman race
1.8–11: Muse, why did Juno make such a good man suffer?
1.12–18: Carthage, a city loved by the goddess Juno, was her kingdom, while fate allowed
1.19–28: Juno had heard that a man of Trojan descent would destroy Carthage; and she hated the Trojans anyway, after Paris had insulted her
1.29–33: So she harried the Trojans constantly, making the founding of Rome a tremendous struggle
Learning vocabulary for Section 1.1–33
Study Section for 1.1–33
1.34–123: Storm at sea
1.34–41: As the Trojans leave Sicily, Juno remembers how Minerva treated her beloved Greeks, and decides to act
1.42–9: ‘Minerva smashed Ajax’s ships and killed him – is no one left to worship me, queen of the gods?’
1.50–7: Juno reaches Aeolia, where Aeolus keeps the howling storm winds under control
1.58–64: Destruction would have ensued had Jupiter not put Aeolus in charge to keep them in check
1.65–70: ‘My enemies are sailing for Italy; smash them’
1.71–5: ‘I shall give you Deiopea as your wife’
1.76–80: Aeolus: ‘Agreed, for thanks to you I have my seat among the gods’
1.81–91: The storm breaks: huge waves, men scream, rigging shrieks, darkness, thunder and lightning, death everywhere
1.92–101: Aeneas despairs: ‘Why could I not have died at Troy with Hector and all the rest?’
1.102–7: Aeneas’ ship is badly damaged, others thrown about on the waves
1.108–23: Three ships hit a reef, three run aground on the Syrtes, another sinks
Learning vocabulary for Section 1.34–123
Study Section for 1.34–123
1.124–222: Neptune’s intervention, and landfall
1.124–31: Neptune senses the disturbance, rises up and summons the winds
1.132–41: ‘Have you dared to act without my orders? Tell Aeolus to keep to his own realm’
1.142–7: Neptune, with help, calms the waves and rescues the ships . . .
1.148–56: . . . like a great man calming a noisy, seditious rabble
1.157–69: Aeneas’ men make for Libya and find a threatening-looking,but easy, safe anchorage
1.170–9: The crew of the seven remaining ships disembark, light a fire and prepare to eat
1.180–6: Aeneas climbs a rock. He can see no other ships, but spots some stags
1.187–97: Aeneas returns with seven stags, divides them up and shares out Acestes’ wine
1.198–207: Aeneas rallies his men: ‘You have suffered worse; be of good heart; Troy will rise again in Latium’
1.208–15: Aeneas hides his misery; his men prepare the food, eat and drink
1.216–22: Food eaten and tables cleared, they grieve for lost comrades
Learning vocabulary for Section 1.124–222
Study Section for 1.124–222
1.223–304: Jupiter’s promise
1.223–33: Jupiter turns his attention to Libya, and Venus asks him why he is causing such suffering for her son Aeneas
1.234–41: ‘You promised they would found Rome; that was my consolation. When will their trials end?’
1.242–53: ‘Trojan Antenor was allowed to escape the Greeks and found Patavium; but Aeneas is betrayed, his obedience unrewarded’
1.254–66: Jupiter, smiling, replies ‘Fear not: it will all happen, Aeneas will win his battles in Italy and reign for three years’
1.267–77: ‘His son Ascanius/Iulus will reign for thirty years, and build a new city in Alba Longa which will last 300 years; then Romulus will be born and build Rome’
1.278–88: ‘Rome will rule for ever, and Juno will be won over. Romans will conquer Greece, and Julius Caesar will be born’
1.289–96: ‘Caesar will be received into heaven, justice will prevail, war will end and Strife be locked up’
1.297–304: Maia’s son Mercury is sent to prepare Dido and the Carthaginians to welcome Aeneas and the Trojans
Learning vocabulary for Section 1.223–304
Study Section for 1.223–304
1.305–417: Encounter with Venus
1.305–13: In the morning Aeneas and Achates set out to explore the land
1.314–24: Aeneas’ mother Venus, dressed as a Spartan girl or Thracian huntress, meets him and asks if he has seen her fellow huntresses
1.325–34: Aeneas, convinced she is a goddess, asks for help, promising her sacrifices
1.335–42: Venus denies it, saying she is an ordinary Tyrian girl in a city where Dido now rules. She tells the story
1.343–52: ‘Dido’s beloved husband Sychaeus was killed by her evil brother Pygmalion for Sychaeus’ gold; he kept the deed secret from her’
1.353–64: ‘Sychaeus revealed all in a dream and, telling Dido where his gold was, persuaded her to flee, which she did, with companions’
1.365–71: ‘So they sailed to Carthage and measured out their territory with bull’s hide. But who are you?’
1.372–9: ‘The story would be too long; we are Trojans driven ashore here and I am Aeneas’
1.380–6: ‘My mother showed me the way to Italy, but I have lost many ships and arrived here’
1.387–401: Venus says he has reached Carthage and should seek the queen; his ships are safe, to judge by a bird omen she has seen
1.402–9: Venus departs, but Aeneas recognises her and complains that she will not even acknowledge him
1.410–17: Venus conceals them in a cloud and herself leaves for her sanctuary on Paphos (frontispiece)
Learning vocabulary for Section 1.305–417
Study Section for 1.305–417
1.418–519: Arrival in Carthage
1.418–29: They reach Carthage and admire the work – gates, streets, walls, buildings, government, harbours, and theatres
1.430–40: They are busy like bees working round the hive; Aeneas is impressed and envious
1.441–52: In a grove Dido was having built a temple to Juno – in which Aeneas saw his first signs of hope
1.453–63: Aeneas sees depictions of the Trojan war and is comforted that their sufferings are known even there – so there is hope
1.464–78: Tearfully, he sees Greeks fighting Trojans – Greek Achilles and Diomedes, and Trojan Troilus dragged to his death by his horses
1.479–93: . . . Trojans supplicating Minerva, Achilles selling the body of dead Hector, and pro-Trojan Eastern warriors like Memnon, the Amazons and Penthesilea
1.494–504: Dido appears, looking like the huntress Diana among her followers
1.505–19: As Dido legislates from the temple, Aeneas is amazed to see appearing the men he had thought lost at sea, and longs to question them
Learning vocabulary for Section 1.418–519
Study Section for 1.418–519
1.520–656: Dido’s welcome
1.520–33: Ilioneus appeals for help: they have not come to plunder the city but to reach Italy
1.534–50 ‘But suddenly a storm arose; now we are being attacked and have lost our leader Aeneas’
1.551–8: ‘Help us to reach Italy, or if Aeneas is dead, at least to return to Sicily’
1.559–78: Dido greets them, explains the behaviour of her guards and says everyone knows of the Trojans; they will be safe here and she will try to find Aeneas
1.579–93: Aeneas and Achates long to reveal themselves; their cloud disperses and Aeneas is revealed, looking like a god
1.594–612: Aeneas explains who he is and praises Dido for her generosity
1.613–30: The amazed Dido can hardly believe it is Aeneas, mentions her links with him through Greek Teucer and welcomes them all
1.631–42: Sacrifices are prepared and the palace arranged for a magnificent banquet
1.643–56: Aeneas sends Achates to fetch his son Ascanius and gifts saved from Troy for the queen
Learning vocabulary for Section 1.520–656
Study Section for 1.520–656
1.657–756: Falling in love
1.657–76: Venus, fearful of Carthage and Juno, decides to replace Ascanius briefly with her son Cupid and orders him to make Dido fall in love with Aeneas
1.677–94: ‘I shall send Ascanius to sleep and remove him; you act his part and breathe your fire of love into her’
1.695–711: The Trojans arrive and sit at table, the Carthaginians admire the gifts and ‘Ascanius’
1.712–22: Dido is entranced by Cupid/Ascanius, who slowly makes her forget her previous husband and turns her heart to new love
1.723–35: After the food, drink is brought in and Dido toasts the occasion, praying for a happy outcome
1.736–47: All partake of the toast; then the singer Iopas entertains them with songs of the origins of the universe
1.748–56: Dido, transfixed with love, questions Aeneas about Troy and demands he tell his story
Study Section for 1.657–756
Topics for extended essays on Book 1
Book 2 Aeneas’ account of the destruction of Ilium
2.1–56: The Greeks’ ‘departure’, and the wooden horse
2.1–13: As all fall silent, Aeneas introduces the pitiable fall of Troy (see Figure 2), at which even Greeks would weep; but despite his reluctance, he will begin
2.13–20: ‘After years of failure, the Greeks with Minerva’s help constructed a wooden horse, filling it with armed men’
2.21–30: ‘They then left to hide in the nearby island of Tenedos. We, imagining them gone, came out to explore their camp and the battlefield, where it had all happened’
2.31–9: ‘Minerva’s gift attracted special attention. Some welcomed it, others wanted it thrown into the sea, burned or opened up’
2.40–9: ‘The priest Laocoon was adamant that, as you would expect from Greeks, it was all a trick’
2.50–6: ‘Laocoon threw a spear into it, making the horse echo. Had the fates not been contrary, Troy would still stand'
Learning vocabulary for Section 2.1–56
Study section for 2.1–56
2.57–198: Sinon’s tale
2.57–66: ‘Then herdsmen brought in a young man, hands bound, primed to trick the Trojans or die – if they but knew it’
2.67–75: ‘The captive wondered where he was, an enemy of Greek and Trojan alike. We were immediately interested in his story’
2.77–87: ‘He admitted to being a Greek, Sinon, and said he was a close friend and relative of Palamedes, put to death for opposing the war’
2.88–96: ‘He said his standing was now lost, and in his grief threatened to take revenge if ever he returned to Greece’‘
2.97–104: ‘He described how Ulysses spread rumours about him, determined to do away with him – but he then broke off , wondering why he should waste time telling the Trojans this, since they hated all Greeks’
2.105–13: ‘This made us all the keener to hear his story, and he told how the Greeks wanted to leave Troy, but winds prevented them. So, Sinon said, they built the wooden horse – but it was greeted with a thunderstorm’
2.114–21: ‘Eurypylus was sent to the oracle, which said they must sacrifice a Greek if they were ever to return’
2.122–31: ‘Ulysses sent for the prophet Calchas who, after a long silence, said Sinon should be the victim’
2.132–44: ‘Sinon was prepared for sacrifice but escaped; knowing that he now stood no chance of ever returning home, he asked us to take pity on him’
2.145–61: ‘We pitied him, and Priam made him one of us, before asking what the wooden horse was for. Sinon said he would tell us, it being no crime now for him to break an oath of allegiance to the Greeks’
2.162–79: ‘Sinon said the Greeks had lost the confidence of Minerva because they stole the Palladium, her image, from her temple in Ilium. When the image started acting strangely, Calchas said they had to take it back to Greece, consult the omens and then return with it to Troy’
2.180–98: ‘Sinon said the Greeks had now left for home, leaving the horse to atone for their sin against Minerva. He said that if the Trojans did not violate it, but took it into the city, it was fated that Troy would take the battle to Greece’
Learning vocabulary for Section 2.57–198
Study section for 2.57–198
2.199–267: The fate of Laocoon
2.199–208: ‘Then another sign: as Laocoon sacrificed, two huge serpents emerged from the sea’
2.209–27: ‘As we fled in terror, they made for Laocoon, attacked his sons and then turned on him as he tried to save them. The snakes then took refuge in Minerva’s temple’
2.228–40: ‘Assuming that this omen was the punishment for Laocoon attacking the horse, people shouted for the horse to be brought into the city. We celebrated as we did so’
2.241–9: ‘We ignored the signs as we brought it in, ignored Cassandra’s prophecies and instead adorned the gods’ shrines’
2.250–67: ‘As we slept, the Greek fleet left Tenedos, Sinon opened up the horse and the city’s gates. The Greeks killed the guards and joined forces’
Learning vocabulary for Section 2.199–267
Study section for 2.199–267
2.268–401: From a dream of Hector to the battle for Ilium
2.268–86: ‘As I slept, Hector, still mutilated from Achilles’ assault on him, appeared to me in a dream. I asked why he had come’
2.287–97: ‘He ignored my questions and told me Troy was no more: I was to flee, taking the city’s sacraments and household gods with me’
2.298–317: ‘As the noise of battle grew, I made for the top of the house to witness the scene, like a shepherd watching a fire or flood. Destruction was widespread; foolishly I armed myself for battle’
2.318–35: ‘I asked the priest Panthus, escaping with grandson and holy objects, what was happening and he said all hope was lost – the Greeks had taken the city’
2.336–54: ‘I joined other Trojans and urged them to be ready to die in defence of a lost cause’
2.355–69: ‘We attacked like wolves; the city was on its knees, bodies everywhere (Greek and Trojan), grief, fear and death universal’
2.370–85: ‘We killed the Greek Androgeos and his men, who did not recognise us as Trojans’
2.386–401: ‘Coroebus suggested disguising ourselves as Greeks, and we began by enjoying great success’
Learning vocabulary for Section 2.268–401
Study section for 2.268–401
2.402–505: The siege of Priam’s palace
2.402–12: ‘Coroebus saw Cassandra being dragged away by the Greeks, and led a ferocious assault; but Trojans mistook us for Greeks, and the slaughter was great’
2.413–34: ‘The Greeks too, seeing through our disguise, attacked us. It was like adverse winds clashing; despite my efforts, most of my companions were killed’
2.434–52: ‘I and two others reached Priam’s palace; while the Greeks tried to storm it, the Trojans from above hurled down on them whatever they could tear from the building, while massed Trojans defended the entrance. I rushed to join them’
2.453–68: ‘I entered the palace by a back entrance and made for the roof; there we collapsed a tower onto the Greeks below, but still they came’
2.469–90: ‘The snake-like Pyrrhus (son of Achilles) and other Greeks hacked into the door into the palace and observed the confusion and terror inside’
2.491–505: ‘Breaking through the door, the Greeks butchered the occupants, as destructive as a river in spate. All hope was gone. The Greeks were the masters’
Learning vocabulary for Section 2.402–505
Study section for 2.402–505
2.506–58: The death of Priam
2.506–25: ‘Old Priam buckled on his armour, but his wife Hecuba told him to seek refuge with her at the altar’
2.526–43: ‘Priam’s son Polites tried to escape Pyrrhus, but was killed near the altar. Priam rounded on Pyrrhus, accusing him of being no true son of his father Achilles’
2.544–58: ‘Priam threw a feeble spear at Pyrrhus, who told him to report his actions to Achilles in Hades, then slaughtered him, leaving his headless corpse on the shore’
Learning vocabulary for Section 2.506–58
Study section for 2.506–58
2.559–633: Helen and Venus
2.559–66: ‘I suddenly thought of my father, wife and family, and found myself alone’
2.567–88: (‘Then I saw Helen; she was trying to hide from Trojans as well as Greeks. I thought of her returning home to Greece in triumph and longed to kill her there and then and take revenge for all she had done’)
2.589–603: ‘Suddenly Venus appeared to me, telling me to look for my family and forget about Helen or Paris – the gods were responsible for Troy’s fall’
2.604–23: ‘Venus showed me Neptune, Juno and Minerva at work destroying the city, and told me to escape’
2.624–33: ‘I saw Troy toppling like a ancient ash tree’
Learning vocabulary for Section 2.559–633
Study section for 2.559–633
2.634–734: Anchises
2.634–49: ‘I found my father, but he refused to leave; he had been useless for too long and wanted to die in Troy’
2.650–70: ‘No one could persuade Anchises otherwise; I decided I had to stay and fight’
2.671–91: ‘As I armed, Creusa begged me to think of the family. At that moment a supernatural flame appeared on Iulus’ head, a sign greeted joyfully by Anchises who begged Jupiter for confirmation’
2.692–704: ‘When a shooting star flashed across the sky, Anchises agreed to leave’
2.705–20: ‘I said I would carry Anchises; everyone was to meet by an ancient cypress tree; Anchises would bring Troy’s sacraments and ancestral gods’
2.721–34: ‘Now fearful of everything, I set off with Anchises, Creusa and Iulus, but Anchises heard foot-steps and told me to run for it’
Study section for 2.634–734
2.735–804: Creusa
2.735–51: ‘I ran off wildly and, meeting up at the tree, found Creusa missing. I armed and went back to find her’
2.752–70: ‘Despite Greek control of the city and its treasures, I searched everywhere, even calling her name’
2.771–89: ‘Then Creusa appeared as a ghost, telling me it was the gods’ will and predicting the Trojan future in Hesperia’
2.790–804: ‘I tried in vain to embrace her, rejoined my family and companions and set off for the hills’
Study section for 2.735–804
Topics for extended essays on Book 2
Some views for general discussion
Appendix: Other versions of the sack of Ilium
Summary of The Sack of Ilium (Arctinus from Miletus, c. ?650 BC)
From the summary of the Little Iliad (Lesches, c. ?650 BC)
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, The Roman Antiquities (c. 7 BC) Book 1 46–8 (Loeb translation)
Apollodorus, The Library of Greek Mythology (c. AD 100??), tr. by Robin Hard (World’s Classics) Epitome 5.13–23
Diodorus Siculus (‘from Sicily’), Library of History (c. 30 BC), 7.4
Total learning vocabulary
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Index
