Rainbow Jurisdiction at the International Criminal Court: Protection of Sexual and Gender Minorities Under the Rome Statute

Acknowledgements
Contents
Abbreviations
1 Introduction
1.1 Introductory Remarks
1.2 Practical Importance of the Book
1.3 Scope of the Analysis
1.4 Methodology
1.5 Definitions
1.5.1 Gender-Based Crimes
1.5.2 LGBTI as Well as Sexual and Gender Minorities
1.5.3 Sexual Orientation and Sexual Minorities
1.5.4 Gender Identity and Gender Minorities
1.6 Course of the Argument
References
Part I Factual and Legal Background
2 Reality
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Lack of Data
2.3 Perpetrators
2.4 Differences Between Persecution of Female and Male Sexual Minorities
2.5 Case Groups
2.5.1 Anti-SGM Laws
2.5.2 Crimes Committed by the Police
2.5.3 Crimes Committed in Prisons, Detentions Centers, and Custody
2.5.4 Human Rights Defenders and Activists
2.5.5 Correction Centers and Therapies
2.5.6 Genital Surgeries on Intersex Children
2.6 Conclusion
References
3 Interpretation of the Rome Statute
3.1 Introductory Remarks
3.2 The ICC’s Applicable Law
3.3 Rules of Interpretation According to the Vienna Convention
3.3.1 General Rule of Interpretation
3.3.2 Supplementary Means of Interpretation
3.4 Nullum Crimen Principle
3.4.1 Purposes of the Principle of Legality
3.4.2 Elements of the Nullum Crimen Principle
3.4.3 Temporal Element of Interpretation
3.5 Human Rights Interpretation Including the Principle of Non-Discrimination
3.5.1 Relationship Between International Criminal Law and International Human Rights Law
3.5.2 Human Rights Interpretation
3.5.3 The Universal and the Regional Human Rights Systems
3.5.4 Internationally Recognized Human Rights
3.5.5 Prohibition on Adverse Distinction
3.6 Conclusion
References
Part II Persecution of Sexual and Gender Minorities as a Crime Against Humanity
4 Contextual Element
4.1 Introductory Remarks
4.2 Widespread or Systematic Attack Directed Against Any Civilian Population
4.2.1 Widespread or Systematic Attack
4.2.2 Policy Element
4.2.3 Directed Against Any Civilian Population
4.3 Connection with the Individual Act
4.4 Mental Elements
4.5 Conclusion
References
5 The Crime Against Humanity of Persecution
5.1 Introductory Remarks
5.2 Persecutory Acts, Severe Deprivation of Fundamental Rights, and Connection to Another Crime
5.2.1 Criminalization of Same-Sex Sexuality
5.2.2 Concentration Camps
5.2.3 Extra-Legal Arbitrary Arrests
5.2.4 Killings and Violence by Non-State Actors and Extra-Legally Acting State Officials
5.2.5 Torture and Other Ill-Treatment
5.2.6 Restrictions on the Freedoms of Opinion and Expression, Association, and Assembly
5.2.7 Restrictions of Family and Partnership Rights
5.2.8 Summary
5.3 Persecution against Any Identifiable Group or Collectivity on Various Grounds
5.3.1 Links between International Criminal Law Persecution, International Refugee Law Persecution, and International Human Rights Law Discrimination
5.3.2 “Any” Identifiable Group or Collectivity Versus Only Qualified Groups or Collectivities
5.3.3 Subjective or Objective Determination of the Group or Collectivity
5.3.4 Summary
References
6 Gender-Based Persecution of Sexual and Gender Minorities
6.1 Introductory Remarks
6.2 The Drafting History
6.3 The Nullum Crimen Principle
6.4 The Definition: The Two Sexes Within the Context of Society
6.4.1 “The Two Sexes”
6.4.2 “Within the Context of Society”: Gender as a Social Construct
6.4.3 SGM Persecutions as Gender Persecutions
6.4.4 Gender-Based Persecution of Sexual Minorities
6.4.5 Gender-Based Persecution of Gender Minorities
6.4.6 Summary
6.5 Human Rights Interpretation
6.5.1 Rights of Sexual and Gender Minorities as “Internationally Recognized Human Rights”
6.5.2 The Rome Statute’s No-Adverse Distinction Clause Includes Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
6.5.3 Meaning for SGM Rights for the Crime of Gender-Based Persecution
6.5.4 International Law’s Understanding of Gender
6.5.5 Summary
6.6 Conclusion
References
7 Persecution on “Other Grounds that Are Universally Recognized as Impermissible Under International Law”
7.1 Introductory Remarks
7.2 Universalism Versus Cultural Relativism, Colonialism, and Anti-SGM Laws
7.2.1 Affirmation and Challenges to Human Rights’ Universality at the International Level
7.2.2 Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity as Apparently Culturally Sensitive Issues
7.2.3 Summary
7.3 How to Define the “Other Grounds that Are Universally Recognized as Impermissible Under International Law”
7.3.1 Jus Cogens
7.3.2 Customary International Law
7.3.3 Human Rights Treaty Law and International Interpretation
7.3.4 Summary
7.4 Human Rights of Sexual and Gender Minorities
7.4.1 The Principles of Equality and Non-Discrimination Under International Human Rights Law
7.4.2 International Refugee Law
7.5 Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity as “Other Grounds that Are Universally Recognized as Impermissible Under International Law”
7.6 Conclusion
References
8 Political Persecution of Human Rights Defenders and Activists
References
9 Key Findings of Part II
Part III Anti-SGM Legislating as a Crime Against Humanity
10 Anti-SGM Legislating as a Crime Against Humanity
10.1 Introductory Remarks
10.2 Existing Cases
10.3 Modes of Individual Criminal Responsibility for Legislation
10.3.1 Individual Criminal Responsibility for Legislating When the Anti-SGM Law Is Enforced
10.3.2 Unenforced Anti-SGM Laws as Attempts
10.4 Conclusion
References
Part IV Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
11 Summary, Factual Consequences, and Recommendations
11.1 Introductory Remarks
11.2 Summary
11.3 Factual Consequences of Viewing Persecution of SGM as a Crime Against Humanity
11.4 Recommendations
References
Index