Pulsed Electric Fields Technology for the Food Industry: Fundamentals and Applications

Preface
Contents
Part I: Fundamentals of Application of Pulsed Electric Fields in the Food Industry
History of Pulsed Electric Fields in Food Processing
Introduction
Early Works Prior to the Middle of the Twentieth Century
Bactericidal Effects
Assistance of Food Processing Operations
Plasmolysis and “Electrocution” of Foods
Electroplasmolysis
Early Studies in the 1950s
The Role of Anatolii Zagorul’ko
The Role of Boris Flaumenbaum
Other Studies of Electroplamolysis in the 1950s
Food-Oriented Applications of Electroplasmolysis in the 1960s–1990s
Experimental Studies and Development of Methods
Construction of Electroplasmolyzers and Electroextractors
Pulsed Electric Fields
Early Concepts of Electroporation and Treatment by PEF
Concept of Electroporation
Early Practical Application of PEF: The Role of Heinz Doevenspeck
Doevenspeck and Krupp Company
Doevenspeck and Sitzmann
PEF: From the Lab to the First Industrial Applications (1980–2010)
PEF: The Consolidation of the Technology and the Development of Future Applications (2010–2020)
References
Generation and Application of High Intensity Pulsed Electric Fields
Introduction
Electric Load Requirements
Specific Power Consumption
Average Power
Voltage Waveforms
Pulse Lengths and Repetition Rates
Conclusion
Pulsed Power Systems
General Remarks About Switches in Pulsed Power Generators
PEF Treatment Chambers
High-Power Sources
Basic Pulsed Power Circuits
Capacitive Circuits
Inductive Circuits
Ringing Circuits
Circuits with Transformers or Other Voltage Multipliers
Circuits with Pulse Transformers
Circuits with Storage Transformers
Voltage Multiplier I (MARX Generator)
Voltage Multiplier II (GREINACHER Cascade)
Current Multiplier (XRAM Generator)
Pulse Forming Networks
Pulse Forming Lines
Pulse Forming Networks
Networks with Pulse Forming Switches
Concluding Remarks
Components of High-Power Sources
High-Power Capacitors
Switches
Trigatrons
Ignitrons
Thyratrons and Pseudospark Switches
Thyristors, Diodes, and IGCT Switches
Concluding Remarks
Low-Power Source
Basic Considerations
Typical Devices
Appendices
Appendix A: Differential Equation System of Inhomogeneous Pulse Forming Networks
Appendix B: Differential Equation System Describing Homogeneous Pulse Forming Networks
References
The Phenomenon of Electroporation
The Phenomenon and Its Applications
Electroporation at the Membrane and Molecular Level
Electroporation at the Level of a Single Cell and Cell Suspension
Electroporation at the Level of Cell Suspensions and Tissues
Conclusions
References
Electrochemical Reactions in  Pulsed Electric Fields Treatment
Introduction
Historical Background
Electrochemical Behavior of a PEF Treatment Chamber
Ionic Double Layer and Electrode Reactions
Electrical Equivalent Circuit
Factors Affecting Electrode Reactions
Processing Parameters
Design Parameters
Treatment Medium Characteristics
Side Effects of Electrochemical Phenomena and Challenges
Conclusions
References
Part II: Effects of Interest of Pulsed Electric Fields in the Food Industry
Microbial Inactivation by Pulsed Electric Fields
Introduction
Mechanisms of Microbial Inactivation by PEF
The Electroporation Phenomenon
The Microbial Cell in an Electric Field
Potential Cell Outcomes After PEF
Techniques for the Detection of Electroporation in Microbial Cells
Factors Determining Microbial Inactivation by PEF
Processing Parameters
Electric Field Strength
Treatment Time
Pulse Shape
Pulse Width
Frequency
Specific Energy
Temperature
Microbial Characteristics
Type of Microorganism
Cell Size and Shape
Culture Conditions
Characteristics of the Treatment Medium
Electrical Conductivity
pH
Water Activity (ɑw)
Composition of the Treatment Medium
Kinetics of Microbial Inactivation by PEF
Methodological Artifacts Affecting Microbial Inactivation Kinetics by PEF
Strain and Culture Conditions
PEF Treatment Parameters
Treatment Medium
Recovery Conditions
Combined Treatments
Conclusions
References
Cell Membrane Permeabilization by Pulsed Electric Fields for Efficient Extraction of Intercellular Components from Foods
Introduction
Electroporation, Its Detection, and PEF Protocols
Electroporation of Membranes
Electroporation of Single Cell and Ensembles of Cells and Tissues
Spherical Cell
Cells with Different Shapes and Sizes
Ensembles of Cells
Tissues
Techniques to Detect Electroporation
Light and Other Microscopies
Electrical Impedance Techniques
Diffusivity
Textural Tests
Acoustic Test
PEF Protocols, Treatment Chambers, and Optimization of the Treatment
PEF Protocols
Treatment Chambers
Optimization of the PEF Treatment
Solid/Liquid Expression and Solvent Extraction of Valuable Compounds from Food Plants Enhanced by PEF
Solid/Liquid Expression: Principles and Models
Solvent Extraction of Soluble Substances: Principles and Models
Some Examples of PEF-Assisted Processes for Different Foods
Potatoes and Apples
Sugar Crops
Sugar Beet
Sugarcane
Chicory
Carrots
Red Beets
Onions
Tomatoes
Citruses
Winemaking from Grapes
Mushrooms
Conclusions
References
Effect of Pulsed Electric Fields on Food Quality
Introduction
Pulsed Electric Fields as a Way to Improve Food Quality
High-Intensity Pulsed Electric Fields (HIPEF)
Moderate-Intensity Pulsed Electric Fields (MIPEF)
Effects of PEF on Food Constituents Related to Food Quality Attributes
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Minor Compounds
Final Remarks
References
Part III: Applications of Pulsed Electric Fields in the Food Industry
Liquid Food Pasteurization by Pulsed Electric Fields
Introduction
Principle of PEF for Pasteurization
Potential Liquid Products for PEF Pasteurization
Fruit Juices
High-Acid Fruit Juices
Low-Acid Fruit Juices
Smoothies and Fruit Puree
Vegetable Juices and Soups
Milk and Milk-Derived Products
Eggs
Beer
Conclusions and Outlook
References
Pulsed Electric Fields in the Potato Industry
Usage of Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) in the Potato Industry
Production of French Fries
Challenges for the French Fry Production
Implementation in the Industrial French Fry Process
Potato Chips Processing
Challenges for the Potato Chips Production
Technical Implementation in a Chips Processing Line
Conclusion
References
Applications of Pulsed Electric Fields in Winemaking
Introduction
The Application of PEF to Improve Red Winemaking
Effect of PEF on the Extraction of Phenolic Compounds During Maceration in Red Winemaking
Evolution of Wine Obtained with Grapes Treated by PEF During Aging in Bottles and Oak Barrels
Sensory Properties of Wines Obtained with Grapes Treated by PEF
Application of PEF in Wineries for Microbial Inactivation
Application of PEF in Wineries for Accelerating Aging on the Lees
Conclusions
References
Applying Pulsed Electric Fields to Improve Olive Oil Extraction
Introduction
Olive Oil Extraction
The Application of PEF to Improve the Olive Oil Extraction Process
Effects of the Application of PEF Upstream of the Crushing Stage
PEF Effects Downstream of the Crushing Stage and Upstream of Malaxation
Effects of PEF Treatment Downstream of the Malaxation Stage and Upstream of the Separation Stage
Cost Analysis
Conclusions
References
Integration of Pulsed Electric Fields in the Biorefinery Concept to Extract Microalgae Components of Interest for Food Industry
Introduction
Cell Disintegration Methods
Biorefinery Concept Based on PEF Technology
Impact of Various Processing Conditions on Recovery of Proteins and Pigments
Impact of Incubation Time and Temperature
Impact of Post-PEF Incubation pH
Impact of Biomass Concentration
Specific Treatment Energy
Conclusion
References
Drying Improving by Pulsed Electric Fields
Introduction
Drying Progress
The Effect of PEF Pre-treatment on Drying
Air Drying
Freeze-Drying
Osmotic Dehydration
Conclusion
References
Pulsed Electric Fields Application in Meat Processing
Introduction
Effect of PEF on Meat Quality
Effect of PEF on Meat Tenderness
Effect of PEF on Water Holding Capacity of Meat
Effect of PEF on Purge Loss of Meat
Effect of PEF on Cooking Loss of Meat
Effect of PEF on Colour of Meat
Effect of PEF on Sensory Properties of Meat
Effect of PEF on Thermal Properties and Solubility of Meat Proteins
Effect of PEF on Lipid Oxidation in Meat
Effect of PEF on Fatty Acid Composition of Meat
Effect of PEF on Volatile Profile of Meat
Effect of PEF on Mineral Profile of Meat
Effect of PEF on Microorganisms in Meat
Application of PEF as Pretreatment to Sous-Vide Processing
Application of PEF as Pretreatment to Meat Ageing
Application of PEF in Meat Salting, Brining, and Drying
Conclusions
Future Directions
References
Other Applications of Pulsed Electric Fields Technology for the Food Industry
Introduction
Extraction of Pigments by PEF
Extraction of Pigments from Plant-Based Matrices
Extraction of Valuable Pigments from Microbial Cells
Enhancing Expression of Juices by PEF
Improvement of Sugar Beet Processing by PEF
Improving Tomato Peeling by PEF
Application of PEF for By-products Revalorization
Conclusions
References
Part IV: Pulsed Electric Fields Processing in the Food Industry
Pulsed Electric Field Process Performance Analysis
Introduction
Role of Experimental Setup
Role of Thermal Effects and Complex Media in Microbial Inactivation
Thermal Effects
Complex Media
PEF Treatment of Plant Materials and Requirements for Process Integration
Role of Plant Tissue Structure for PEF Performance
Role of Process Integration for Evaluation of PEF Performance
Consideration of Connected Processing Steps
Challenges for Industrial Implementation
Conclusion
References
Pulsed Electric Fields Industrial Equipment Design
Introduction
Prerequisites of PEF Equipment Design
Pulsed Power Supply
Treatment Chamber Design Considerations
Current and Upcoming Industrial Applications and Systems Used
R&D and Smaller-Scale Systems
Fruit Juice and Smoothie Preservation
Processing of Agricultural Products
Process Control Options
Conclusions and Outlook
References
Process Validation and Hygienic Design for Pulsed Electric Field Processing
Introduction
Hygienic Design
Validation of PEF Process
Validation of Microbial 5-Log Reduction
Product Factors
Microbial Factors
PEF System Validation: Process Parameters
Conclusion
References
Environmental Impact Assessment of Pulsed Electric Fields Technology for Food Processing
Introduction
Environmental Assessment of a Food Processing Technology
Sustainability Conditions for Different PEF Applications
Life Cycle Impact Assessment and Comparison of Technologies
PEF for Preservation of Liquids
PEF in Potato Processing
PEF for Other Applications
Techno-economic Conditions
Conclusion
References
Regulation of Foods Processed by Pulsed or Moderate Electric Fields (PEF or MEF)
Introduction
Regulation Within the European Union (EU)
Background to Regulation in the EU
Novel Food Regulations 2283/2015 vs. 258/97
What Do These Two Regulations Have in Common?
What Are the Main Differences Between These Two Regulations?
Application Process
Novel Technology Applications Within the EU
Regulation Within the USA
Background
Regulating ‘New Technologies’
Pulsed Electric Fields
Conclusions
References