Public transportation systems : principles of system design, operations planning and real-time control

Contents
Preface
About the Authors
Chapter 1. Transit Basics
1.1. Need for Public Transportation
1.2. Expectations and Challenges
1.2.1. Stakeholders and Expectations
1.2.2. Challenges
1.3. Basic Typology of Transit Systems
1.3.1. ROW
1.3.2. Infrastructure
1.3.3. Vehicles
1.3.4. Type of Service
1.4. Cost and Performance
1.4.1. Costs
1.4.2. Performance
References
Homework
Chapter 2. Analysis Tools
2.1. The Time–Space Diagram
2.1.1. A Single Vehicle
2.1.2. Multiple Vehicles
2.1.3. Application to Modeling and Analysis
2.2. The Queueing Diagram
2.2.1. Basics
2.2.2. Interpreting Data: Smoothing, Averages and Little’s Formula
2.2.3. Predicting Delay and Queue Evolution
2.3. Optimization
2.3.1. Unconstrained Optimization
2.3.2. Constrained Optimization
2.4. Dimensional Analysis
2.4.1. Formula Verification
2.4.2. Fundamental Ideas: Reformulation with Dimensionless Groups
2.4.3. Application
References
Homework
Appendix 2.A. How to Identify Maximal Sets
Chapter 3. Planning — General Ideas
3.1. Planning Decisions
3.1.1. Temporal Horizon
3.1.2. Scope of the Solution Domain
3.1.3. Modeling Philosophy
3.1.4. The Two-Step Method: Integer vs. Continuous Variables
3.2. Accounting for Non-Monetary Performance Outputs
3.2.1. The Standards Approach
3.2.2. Connection between the Lagrangian and Standards Approaches
3.3. Demand Endogeneity
3.4. Building Blocks for Planning
References
Homework
Chapter 4. Planning — Shuttle Systems
4.1. Individual Transportation
4.1.1. Time-Independent Demand
4.1.2. Known Time-Dependent Demand: The Evening Commute
4.1.3. Adaptive Demand: The Morning Commute
4.2. Collective Transportation
4.2.1. Time-Independent Demand
4.2.2. Time-Dependent Demand
4.3. Bimodal Equilibrium: Congestion Abatement by Prioritizing Transit
References
Homework
Appendix 4.A. Equilibrium of the Morning Commute Problem
Chapter 5. Planning — Corridors
5.1. Preliminary Insights: An Idealized Analysis
5.1.1. Limits to Door-to-Door Speed: A Single Line
5.1.2. The Effect of Access Speed: Usefulness of Hierarchies
5.2. Single Lines: Analysis Method and Solution Properties
5.2.1. Assumptions and Preliminary Modeling Considerations
5.2.2. Formulation and Solution
5.2.2.1. The Standards Problem: Solution Methodology
5.2.2.2. Nature of the Solution
5.3. Multiple Standards
5.4. Multiple Lines: Hierarchical Systems
5.4.1. Formulation and Analysis
5.4.2. Results and Insights
5.5. Extensions
5.5.1. Directional Asymmetry
5.5.2. Space- and Time-dependent Service
5.5.3. Capacity Considerations
References
Homework
Mini Project 1. Converting a Local Bus Line into Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)
Chapter 6. Planning — Networks
6.1. Idealized Analysis
6.1.1. A Single Route: Systems without Transfers
6.1.2. Multi-Route Systems: The Role of Transfers
6.2. Realistic Analysis: Grids
6.2.1. Derivation of the Generalized Cost Function
6.2.2. Optimization and Solution Properties
6.2.2.1. Solution when s ≤ S is not Binding
6.2.2.2. Solution when s ≤ S is Binding and we set s = S
6.2.3. Generalizations
6.3. Capacity: Grids
6.3.1. The Passenger-Carrying Capacity Constraint
6.3.2. The Three Capacity Constraints Combined: Implications for City Size
6.4. Other Network Structures
6.4.1. Hub-and-Spoke Networks
6.4.1.1. Derivations
6.4.1.2. Performance Compared with Grids
6.4.1.3. Optimal Design Formulas and Discussion
6.4.2. Hybrid Networks
6.5. Designing Real Systems
6.5.1. The Design Procedure
6.5.2. Real-World Case Study
6.5.2.1. The Design Method Applied
6.5.2.2. Real-world Benefits of Systematic Design
6.6. Additional Topics
6.6.1. Networks without Street Constraints
6.6.2. Transit Synergies and the Last Mile Problem
6.6.3. Endogenous Dwell Times and Flexible Stopping
References
Homework
Mini Project 2. Designing a Transit Network
Appendix 6.A. A Lower Bound for the Maximum Link Flow
Appendix 6.B. Hierarchical Grid Networks
Chapter 7. Planning — Flexible Transit
7.1. Chauffeured Vehicle Sharing: Radio-Taxis and Robo-Taxis
7.1.1. The Physics of Taxi Service: A Queuing Model
7.1.2. The Operator’s View: System Optimization via Standards
7.1.3. Society’s View: Comparison with Private Autos and Collective Transit
7.2. Non-Chauffeured Vehicle Sharing: One-Way Systems
7.2.1. Podless, Park-Anywhere Systems
7.2.2. Pod-based Systems
7.2.2.1. Stochastic Effects and Redistribution Costs
7.3. Ride-Matching and Carpooling
7.3.1. Ride-Matching with and without Reservations
7.3.2. Carpooling
7.4. Demand Responsive Transit
7.4.1. Dial-a-Ride
7.4.1.1. DARPhysics
7.4.1.2. Designing the System
7.4.1.3. Society’s View
7.4.2. Shared Taxi
7.4.3. Comparison of Urban Transportation Modes
7.5. Demand Responsive Transit with Established Stations and Hubs: Jitneys
7.5.1. Waiting Times under Adaptive Dispatching
7.5.1.1. Hard Targets
7.5.1.2. Soft Targets
7.6. Closing Comments: Technology and the Future of Transit
References
Homework
Appendix 7.A. Expected Distance to the Closest of n Random Points
Appendix 7.B. The Expected Fraction of Feasible Matches
Chapter 8. Management — Vehicle Fleets
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Schedule Covering: One Bus Route with a Single Terminus
8.2.1. Fleet Size: Graphical Analysis
8.2.2. Fleet Size: Numerical Analysis
8.2.3. Multiple Bus Types
8.2.4. Terminus Location
8.2.5. Run Determination
8.3. Schedule Covering for N Bus Routes
8.3.1. Single Terminus Close to the Depot
8.3.2. Dispersed Termini and Deadheading Heuristics
8.3.3. Discussion: Effects of Deadheading and Pooling
References
Homework
Appendix 8.A: Proof–LIFO and Greedy Methods use Fewest Buses
Appendix 8.B: The “Vehicle Routing Problem” and Meta-Heuristics
8.B.1. The Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP)
8.B.2. Local Searches and Meta-Heuristics
8.B.3. The Vehicle Routing Problem (VRP)
Chapter 9. Management — Staffing
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Independent Runs
9.2.1. A Worst-Case Compensation Structure
9.2.2. Overtime
9.2.3. Multiple Shift Types
9.3. Multiple Runs
9.3.1. Solution Algorithm
9.3.2. A Lower Bound to Cost
9.4. Staffing
9.4.1. Populating Shifts with Salaried Employees
9.4.1.1. A Unique Shift Type
9.4.1.2. Two Shift Types
9.4.1.3. Dealing with Absenteeism
References
Homework
Mini Project 3. Fleet and Crew Management
Appendix 9.A. Combining Driver Types to Cover a Run
Chapter 10. Operations — Reliable Transit Service
10.1. How Unreliability Affects Transit Users
10.1.1. Passengers without Appointments, Unscheduled Service
10.1.2. Passengers without Appointments, Scheduled Service
10.1.3. Passengers with Appointments, Unscheduled Service
10.1.4. Passengers with Appointments, Scheduled Service
10.2. Systems of Systems
10.2.1. Single-Agent Systems
10.2.2. Multi-Agent Systems
10.3. Uncontrolled Bus Motion
10.3.1. The Ideal Deterministic Operation
10.3.2. Uncontrolled Bus Motion
10.4. Control by Schedule
10.4.1. System Dynamics with Schedule Control
10.4.2. Setting the Slack and the Control Point Separations
10.5. Multi-Bus Control Strategies
10.5.1. Basic Algorithms
10.5.1.1. Frequency-Based Systems
10.5.1.2. Scheduled Systems
10.5.2. Robust Control
10.6. Practical Considerations
10.7. Field Studies and Human Factors
10.7.1. The Simple Control: Evidence from Dbus (San Sebastian, Spain)
10.7.2. The Robust Control: Evidence from OTS (Honolulu, Hawaii)
10.8. Remedial Measures
10.8.1. Terminus Strategies
10.8.2. Speeding-up Individual Buses
10.8.3. More Drastic Strategies
References
Homework
Mini Project 4. Designing Control Strategies to Mitigate Bus Bunching
Chapter 11. Epilogue: Economics and Pricing
11.1. Decomposition
11.2. Economics
11.2.1. An Ideal Agency
11.2.2. Realistic Agencies
11.2.3. How to Encourage Agencies to Perform for the Public Good
11.2.3.1. Unlimited Subsidies
11.2.3.2. Finite Subsidies
11.2.3.3. A Generalization to Include Externalities
Homework
Index