Production Technology of Stone Fruits

Contents
About the Editors
1: Varietal Diversification of Stone Fruits
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Taxonomy of Stone Fruits
1.3 Origin and Domestication
1.3.1 Peaches and Nectarines
1.3.2 Plums
1.3.3 Apricot
1.3.4 Cherries
1.4 Genetic Resources
1.4.1 Peaches and Nectarines
1.4.2 Plums
1.4.3 Apricots
1.4.4 Cherries
1.5 History of Improvement and Worldwide Breeding Programs
1.5.1 General Facts
1.5.2 Peaches and Nectarines
1.5.3 Plums
1.5.4 Apricots
1.5.5 Cherries
1.6 General Trends in Stone Fruit Breeding
1.7 Breeding Objectives
1.7.1 Tree and Fruiting Structure
1.7.2 Flower Characteristics
1.7.3 Tolerance to Abiotic Stresses
1.7.4 Tolerance to Biotic Stresses
1.7.5 Fruit Quality
1.7.6 Extension of Harvest Period
1.7.7 Suitability for Mechanical Harvesting
1.8 Breeding Program Structure
1.9 Breeding Strategies
1.10 Parent Selection
1.11 Crossing and Pollination
1.12 Seed Handling, Germination, and Raising seedling population
1.13 Evaluation
1.13.1 Preselection
1.13.2 Primary Selection
1.13.3 Advanced Selection
1.13.4 Final Selection
1.14 Cultivar Release and Commercialization
1.15 Mutation Breeding
1.16 Application of Cell and Tissue Culture in Stone Fruit Breeding
1.17 Genetic Transformation
1.18 Application of Biotechnology in Stone Fruit Breeding
1.19 Fast Breeding
1.20 Conclusion
References
2: Nutrient Management in Stone Fruits
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Availability and Uptake of Nutrients
2.3 Tissue Analysis and Nutrient Status
2.4 Nutrient Needs by Stone Fruits
2.5 Requirement of Organic Manures in Stone Fruits
2.6 Improving Nutrient Use Efficiency
2.7 Nutrient Interactions
2.8 Challenges for Plant Nutrition Management
2.9 Conclusion
References
3: Pollination Management in Stone Fruit Crops
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Reproductive Biology in Prunus
3.3 Pollen-Pistil Incompatibility
3.4 Pollination Requirements
3.5 Inter-incompatibility S-Alleles and Incompatibility Groups
3.6 External Factors Affecting Flowering and Pollination
3.7 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives
3.8 Conclusion
References
4: Canopy Management in Stone Fruits
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Canopy Management in Cherry
4.3 Training of Cherry
4.3.1 Pruning
4.3.2 Growth Regulators
4.3.3 Rootstock
4.4 Canopy Management in Apricot
4.5 Training and Pruning
4.5.1 Thinning and Heading Back of Spring Shoot
4.5.2 Summer Shoot Head Back Pruning and Thinning
4.5.3 Pruning of Apricot in Several Training Systems
4.6 Plant Growth Regulators
4.6.1 Auxins and Gibberellins
4.6.2 Gibberellin Synthesis Inhibitors
4.7 Canopy Management in Plum
4.7.1 Pruning of Bearing Trees
4.8 Canopy Management in Peach and Almond
4.8.1 Tools Used in Pruning
4.9 Training
4.9.1 Open Centre Method
4.10 Selection and Pruning of Scaffold Limbs
4.10.1 Central-Leader Method
4.11 Pruning
4.12 Root Pruning
4.13 Deficit Irrigation
4.14 Rootstocks in Peach
4.15 Plant Growth Regulators
4.16 Conclusion
References
5: Rootstocks of Stone Fruit Crops
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Challenges with Stone Fruit Rootstock
5.2.1 Nematode Problem
5.2.2 Disease Problem
5.2.3 Insect Problem
5.2.4 Edaphic Problem
5.2.5 Horticultural Problem
5.3 Plant Growth and Vigour
5.4 Yield and Quality
5.5 Nutrient Uptake
5.5.1 Nitrogen
5.5.2 Phosphorus
5.5.3 Potassium
5.5.4 Calcium
5.5.5 Magnesium
5.6 Incompatibility
5.7 Resistance
5.8 Postharvest Management
5.9 Replant Problem
5.10 Conclusion
References
6: Irrigation Management in Stone Fruits
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Irrigation Scheduling in Stone Fruits
6.2.1 Peach
6.2.2 Apricot
6.2.3 Plum
6.2.4 Cherry
6.2.5 Almond
6.3 Methods of Irrigation
6.4 Impact of Irrigation on Stone Fruits
6.4.1 Growth
6.4.2 Fruit Set and Yield
6.4.3 Fruit Quality Parameters
6.4.4 Leaf and Fruit Nutrient and Leaf Chlorophyll Content
6.5 Water Use Efficiency
6.6 Fertilizer Application Through Drip Irrigation
6.7 Water Consumption and Other Parameters
References
7: Physiological Disorders in Stone Fruits
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Chilling Injury
7.3 Genetic Factors Involved in Chilling Injury
7.4 Physiological Disorders and Their Management in Stone Fruits
7.5 Genetic Factors Involved in Split Pit
7.6 Physiology of Cracking
7.7 Genetic Factors Involved in Fruit Cracking
7.8 Physiology of Fruit Doubling
7.9 Genetic Factors Involved in Fruit Doubling
7.10 Physiology of Fruit Buttons
7.11 Genetics of Fruit Buttons
7.12 Conclusion
References
8: Orchard Factors Affecting Postharvest Quality of Stone Fruits
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Effect of Climatic Factors
8.3 Effect of Quality and Quantity of Water
8.4 Effect of Mineral Nutrition (Manure/Fertilizers)
8.5 Rootstocks/Interstock
8.6 Effect of Canopy Management
8.7 Effect of Pollination and Pollinizers
8.8 Effect of Hormones
8.9 Conclusion
References
9: Nutritional Composition of Stone Fruits
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Carbohydrates
9.3 Lipids and Fat
9.4 Protein
9.5 Vitamins
9.6 Minerals
9.7 Fiber
9.8 Antioxidants, Phenols, and Secondary Metabolites
9.9 Conclusion
References
10: Chemical Treatments for Shelf Life Enhancement of Stone Fruits
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Chemical Treatments for Shelf Life Enhancement of Stone Fruits
10.2.1 1-Methylcyclopropene
10.2.2 Methyl Jasmonate
10.2.3 Salicylic Acid
10.2.4 Calcium Chloride
10.2.5 Oxalic Acid
10.2.6 Melatonin
10.2.7 Putrescine
10.2.8 Nitric Oxide
10.2.9 Hexanal
10.3 Conclusion
References
11: Packaging and Storage of Stone Fruits
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Packaging of Stone Fruits
11.1.2 Storage of Stone Fruits
11.2 Packaging and Storage of Stone Fruits
11.2.1 Mango (Mangifera indica, Anacardiaceae)
11.2.1.1 General Packaging
11.2.1.2 Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP)
11.2.1.3 Storage
Evaporative Cool Storage
Low-Temperature Storage/Cold Storage at Different Levels of Handling of Fruits
Controlled Atmospheric Storage (CA)
Hypobaric or Low-Pressure Storage
11.2.2 Plum and Peach (Prunus domestica and Prunus persica, Rosaceae)
11.2.2.1 General Packaging
11.2.2.2 Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP)
11.2.2.3 Storage
Cold Storage
Controlled Atmospheric (CA) Storage
11.2.3 Apricots (Prunus armeniaca, Rosaceae)
11.2.3.1 General Packaging
11.2.3.2 Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP)
11.2.3.3 Storage
Ambient Storage
Cold Storage
Controlled Atmospheric (CA) Storage
Hypobaric Storage
11.2.4 Sweet Cherry (Prunus avium, Rosaceae)
11.2.4.1 General Packaging
11.2.4.2 Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP)
11.2.4.3 Storage
Refrigerated Storage
Controlled Atmospheric (CA) Storage
Hypo and Hyperbaric Storage
11.2.5 Litchi (Litchi chinensis, Sapindaceae)
11.2.5.1 General Packaging
11.2.5.2 Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP)
11.2.5.3 Storage
Refrigerated Storage
Controlled Atmospheric (CA) Storage
11.2.6 Almond (Prunus amygdalus, Rosaceae)
11.2.6.1 General Packaging
11.2.6.2 Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP)
11.2.6.3 Storage
Low-Temperature Storage
Controlled Atmospheric (CA) Storage
11.2.7 Dates (Phoenix dactylifera, Arecaceae)
11.2.7.1 General Packaging
11.2.7.2 Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP)
11.2.7.3 Storage
Low-Temperature Storage
Controlled Atmospheric (CA) Storage
11.3 Conclusion
References
12: Hi-Tech Stone Fruit Industry, Issues, and Approaches
12.1 Introduction
12.2 High-Density Planting
12.3 Advantages of High-Density Planting
12.4 Component of High-Density Planting
12.4.1 Micro-irrigation and Fertigation
12.5 Advantages of Fertigation
12.5.1 Integrated Nutrient Management
12.6 Components of INM
12.6.1 Integrated Pest Management
12.6.2 Protected Cultivation
12.7 Advantages of Protected Cultivation
12.7.1 Issues Under Hi-Tech Promotion
12.8 Hi-Tech Fruit Cultivation: Way Forward
12.9 Conclusion
References
13: Growth and Supply Chain of Stone Fruits in the World: An Indian Outlook
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Status of Stone Fruits
13.2.1 Countries with Maximum Area Under Stone Fruits
13.2.2 Countries with Maximum Production of Stone Fruits
13.2.3 Trends in the Area, Production and Yield of Stone Fruit in the World
13.2.4 Forecasted Value of Area, Production and Productivity of Stone Fruits
13.3 Economic Perspective: Micro-evidences
13.3.1 Scenario in the Niche Area (Jammu and Kashmir)
13.3.2 Economic Feasibility of Stone Fruit Cultivation
13.3.2.1 Apricot
Cost of Apricot Cultivation
Marketing System of Apricot
Price Spread in Marketing of Fresh Apricot Through Traditional/Modernized Channels
Price Spread in Marketing of Dried Apricot
13.3.2.2 Almond
Cost of Almond Cultivation
Marketing Arrangements
Price Spread
13.3.2.3 Cherry
Cost of Cherry Cultivation
Marketing Arrangements
Price Spread
13.3.2.4 Plum
Cost of Plum Cultivation
Marketing Arrangements
Price Spread
13.3.2.5 Peach
Cost of Peach Cultivation
Marketing Arrangements
Price Spread
13.4 Problems and Policy Suggestions
13.5 Conclusion and Policy Suggestions
13.5.1 Bridging Technological Gaps
13.5.2 Innovations
13.5.3 Access to Information and Extension and Capacity Development
13.5.4 Linking Production to Markets Through Firm Value Chain
13.5.5 Orchard Management
13.5.6 Provision of Logistics
13.5.7 Expansion of Storage Capacities
13.5.8 Emphasis on Marketing Aspect (National Agricultural Markets (NAM), Spot Markets, etc.)
13.5.9 Market Intelligence to Benefit the Poor
13.5.10 Contract Farming and FPOs
13.5.11 Emphasis on Agripreneurship
13.5.12 Input Supply Support
13.5.13 Development Subsidies
13.5.14 Regional Enterprise Planning and Place for Cash Crops
References
14: Diseases of Stone Fruit Crops
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Leaf Curl
14.2.1 Symptoms
14.2.2 Causal Organism
14.2.3 Disease Development
14.2.4 Management
14.3 Shot Hole
14.3.1 Symptoms
14.3.2 Causal Organism
14.3.3 Disease Development
14.3.4 Management
14.4 Rust
14.4.1 Symptoms
14.4.2 Causal Organism
14.4.3 Disease Development
14.4.4 Management
14.5 Cercospora Leaf Spot
14.5.1 Symptoms
14.5.2 Causal Organism
14.5.3 Disease Development
14.5.4 Management
14.6 Cherry Leaf Spot
14.6.1 Symptoms
14.6.2 Causal Organism
14.6.3 Disease Development
14.6.4 Management
14.7 Scab
14.7.1 Symptoms
14.7.2 Causal Organism
14.7.3 Disease Development
14.7.4 Management
14.8 Brown Rot
14.8.1 Symptoms
14.8.2 Causal Organism
14.8.3 Disease Development
14.8.4 Management
14.9 Powdery Mildew
14.9.1 Symptoms
14.9.2 Causal Organism
14.9.2.1 Podosphaera tridactyla
14.9.2.2 Sphaerotheca pannosa
14.9.3 Disease Development
14.9.4 Management
14.10 Frosty Mildew
14.10.1 Symptoms
14.10.2 Causal Organism
14.11 Cryptosporiopsis Blight
14.11.1 Symptoms
14.11.2 Causal Organism
14.11.3 Disease Development
14.11.4 Management
14.12 Cytospora Canker
14.12.1 Symptoms
14.12.2 Causal Organism
14.12.3 Disease Development
14.12.4 Management
14.13 Phytophthora Root and Crown Rot
14.13.1 Symptoms
14.13.2 Causal Organism
14.13.3 Disease Development
14.13.4 Management
14.14 Bacterial Spot
14.14.1 Symptoms
14.14.2 Causal Organism
14.14.3 Disease Development
14.14.4 Management
14.15 Crown Gall
14.15.1 Symptoms
14.15.2 Causal Organism
14.15.3 Disease Development
14.15.4 Management
14.16 Plum Pox
14.16.1 Symptoms
14.16.2 Causal Organism
14.16.3 Disease Development
14.16.4 Management
14.17 Conclusion
References
15: Integrated Pest Management of Stone Fruits
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Description of Major Insect Pests of Stone Fruits
15.2.1 Aphids
15.2.2 Scale Insects
15.2.3 Wood-Boring Insects
15.2.4 Fruit and Seed Feeders
15.2.5 Foliage Feeders
15.2.5.1 Mesophyll Stylet Feeders
15.2.5.2 Bulk Leaf Feeders
15.3 Integrated Pest Management of Stone Fruits
15.3.1 Monitoring of Insect Pests
15.3.2 Cultural and Mechanical Management
15.3.3 Biological Management
15.3.4 Chemical Management
15.4 Conclusions
References
16: Nematodes Associated with Stone Fruits and Their Management Strategies
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Peach (Prunus persica)
16.2.1 Root-Knot Nematode (Meloidogyne sp.)
16.2.1.1 Symptoms
16.2.1.2 Life Cycle
16.2.1.3 Disease Complex
16.2.1.4 Management
16.2.2 Ring Nematode (Criconemella sp.)
16.2.2.1 Symptoms
16.2.2.2 Life Cycle
16.2.2.3 Disease Complex
16.2.2.4 Management
16.3 Plum (Prunus domestica)
16.3.1 Disease Complex
16.3.2 Management
16.4 Cherry (Prunus avium/P. cerasus)
16.4.1 Disease Complex
16.4.2 Management
16.5 Almond (Prunus amygdalus)
16.5.1 Disease Complex
16.5.2 Management
16.6 Apricot (Prunus armeniaca)
16.6.1 Management
16.7 Conclusion
References