Producing Figurative Expression: Theoretical, experimental and practical perspectives

Producing Figurative Expression
Editorial page
Title page
Copyright page
Table of contents
Introduction
1. Motivation for the volume
2. The chapters
2.1 Section 1: General empirical studies, with main focus on metaphor
2.2 Section 2: General empirical studies – other
2.3 Section 3: Empirical and analytical studies aimed at specific applications
2.4 Section 4: Other theoretical analysis and cognitive or computational modelling
3. Figurative production in areas not covered by this volume
3.1 Other areas of psychology
3.2 Psychotherapy
3.3 Neurophysiology
3.4 Metaphor usage across languages
3.5 Metaphor and translation
3.6 Across modalities
3.7 Other
4. Final remarks: Demarcation of production and understanding
References
section 1. General empirical studies, with main focuson metaphor
Producing metaphor (and other forms of non-literal language) in the laboratory
1. Introduction
2. Inducing the production of nonliteral language ininteractive Icommunication
2.1 The online discussion task
2.2 The passage completion task
3. What is the ecology that invites metaphor or sarcasm production?
3.1 The discourse context generation task
4. Production techniques to study the underlying mechanismsof metaphor
4.1 The vehicle production task
4.2 The life event generation task
5. Concluding comments
References
Metaphor and one-off pictures
1. Introduction
2. Cars in motion represented by a blind girl
3. Wheel metaphors by EA
4. Five wheels, five metaphors
5. Disclaimers tag metaphors
6. EW’s ontologies
7. Thoughts
8. Atmospheres and impressions
9. Good and bad
10. Aida and esthetics
11. Surfaces, expression and intellect
12. Metaphors, images and perception
13. Conclusion
References
Metaphor production and metaphor interpretation
1. Introduction
2. Creative recycling of a metaphorical slogan: Britain at the heart of Europe
3. Productive interpretation: New metaphor variants in questionnaire responses
3.1 nation-as-body interpretations
3.2 nation-as-person interpretations
3.3 Discussion: Distribution patterns and their motivation
4. Conclusions
References
On the role of perceptual similarity in producing visual metaphors
1. Introduction
2. Part 1: Visual metaphors and perceptual similarity
2.1 Introducing visual metaphors
2.2 Production of visual metaphors
2.3 Introducing perceptual similarity
2.4 Perceptual similarity in visual metaphors
2.4.1 Perceptual similarity in juxtaposed visual metaphors
2.4.2 Perceptual similarity in homospatial visual metaphors
2.5 Visual metaphors vs. verbal metaphors
3. Part 2: Two empirical studies on the role of perceptual similarity
3.1 Study 1: Judgement of perceptual similarity
3.1.1 Procedure and task
3.1.2 Results
3.1.3 Discussion
3.2 Study 2: Shape-based perceptual similarity in the production ofvisual metaphors
3.2.1 Preparation of stimulus material
3.2.2 Condition 1
3.2.2.1 Participants
3.2.2.2 Procedure and task
3.2.3 Condition 2
3.2.3.1 Participants
3.2.3.2 Procedure and task
3.2.4 Results
3.2.5 Discussion
4. Part 3: A system to generate perceptually similar images for an intended metaphor
4.1 Design approach
4.2 System architecture
4.3 Perceptual similarity module
4.4 Conceptual similarity module
4.5 Aptness module, context suggestion and integration tool
4.6 Status and evaluation of the system
4.7 Discussion
5. Conclusions
References
section 2. General empirical studies – other
On why people don’t say what they mean
1. Problems with figurative language usage research: Types
Anchor 254
1.2 Risks/costs
2. Problems with figurative language usage research: Methods
3. Solution: A study of pragmatic effects of gratitude acknowledgements using elicited authentic productions
4. Gratitude acknowledgements
5. Summary
6. Production tasks
6.1 Method
Anchor 262
6.3 Materials
Procedure
7. Results
8. Experiment 1: Figurativity and politeness expression in gratitude acknowledgements
8.1 Participants and design
8.2 Materials
8.3 Procedure
Anchor 270
9. Experiment 2: Figurativity and esteem expression in gratitude acknowledgements
9.1 Participants and design
9.2 Materials
9.3 Procedure
9.4 Results and discussion
10. Experiment 3: Figurativity and fondness expression in gratitude acknowledgements
10.1 Participants and design
Anchor 278
10.3 Procedure
10.4 Results and discussion
11. General discussion
12. Pragmatics of gratitude acknowledgements
13. Theoretical approaches to figurative language usage: Politeness and constraint satisfaction
13.1 Politeness Theory
13.2 Constraint satisfaction
14. Inclusion and authenticity
References
How nice does it sound?
1. Irony as an indirect argument
2. The affective and evaluative aspects of irony
3. Blurring the boundaries of irony’s affective aspects
4. The empirical study
4.1 Specific background to the study
4.2 Hypotheses
4.3 Participants
4.4 Materials
4.5 Rating studies
4.6 Method
4.7 Results
5. Discussion
6. Conclusion
References
How defaultness shapes our language production
1. Introduction
1.1 Conditions for interpretations’ defaultness: Which kind of responses would be definable as default outputs
1.2 The defaultness hypothesis – predictions
2. On the speed superiority of default over nondefault interpretations
2.1 The speed superiority of default metaphorical interpretations of negative constructions over their nondefault literal counterparts
2.2 The speed superiority of default sarcastic interpretations of negative constructions over their nondefault literal counterparts
2.3 The speed superiority of default literal interpretations of affirmative sarcasm over their nondefault literal counterparts
2.4 The speed superiority of default literal interpretations of affirmative metaphors over their nondefault literal counterparts
2.5 The speed superiority of default over nondefault counterparts is insensitive to degree of figurativeness
3. Resonating with default interpretations
3.1 Resonating with default metaphorical interpretations of negative constructions
3.1.1 Study 1: Distribution of default negative metaphoricity and default ­affirmative literalness
3.1.2 Study 2: Distribution of type of resonance with default metaphorical ­interpretations of negative constructions
3.2 Resonating with default sarcastic interpretations of negative constructions
3.2.1 Study 3: Distribution of default negative sarcasm and default affirmative literalness of the form X s/he is not
3.2.2 Study 4: Distribution of type of resonance with default sarcastic ­interpretations of negative constructions of the form X s/he is not
3.2.3 Study 5: Distribution of default negative sarcasm and default affirmative literalness of the form X is not her/his forte/best attribute
3.2.4 Study 6: Distribution of type of resonance with default sarcastic ­interpretations of negative constructions of the form X is not her/his forte/ best attribute
3.2.5 Study 7: Distribution of default negative sarcasm and default affirmative literalness of the form X is not the most Y
3.2.6 Study 8: Distribution of type of resonance with default sarcastic ­interpretations of negative constructions of the form X is not the most Y
3.3 Resonating with default literal interpretations of affirmative metaphor and sarcasm
3.3.1 Study 9: Distribution of type of resonance with default literal interpretations of affirmative sarcasm
3.3.2 Study 10: Distribution of type of resonance with default literal ­interpretations of affirmative metaphors
4. Conclusions
References
Producing figurative meanings
1. Introduction
2. Definiteness and idiomaticity
3. Producing figurative meanings
3.1 Participants
3.2 Materials and design
3.3 Procedure
3.4 Results
3.4.1 Types of meanings for non-existing idioms
3.4.2 Transparency rating
3.4.3 Discussion of experimental findings
4. General discussion and future directions
References
The production of verbal irony
1. Definitional issues
2. Cues and constraints
2.1 Knowledge constraints
2.2 Situational constraints
2.3 Discourse goals
2.4 Lexical cues
2.5 Kinesic cues
2.6 The ironic tone of voice
3. Individual differences
Gender differences
3.1 Personality differences
3.2 Cognitive differences
4. Cultural differences
4.1 Linguistic and cultural variation
4.2 Regional variation
5. Computer-mediated communication
5.1 Emoticons and emojis
5.2 Other ways to signal sarcasm online
6. Twitter, sentiment analysis, and verbal irony
6.1 The problem of irony
6.2 Identifying irony online
7. Unanswered questions
References
section 3. Empirical and analytical studies aimed at specific applications
Generating metaphors in product design
1. What is a product metaphor?
2. Metaphoric communication in product design
3. Product metaphor generation
3.1 The intention to use a metaphor
3.2 The meaning to convey
3.2.1 Surface vs. Deep meaning
3.2.2 Embodied vs. Learned meaning
3.3 The source to associate
3.3.1 Salience
3.3.2 Mappability
3.3.3 Novelty
3.4 Mapping
3.4.1 Mapped properties
3.4.2 Mapping strategies
4. Notes on product metaphor generation
5. Summary of considerations for better metaphors
6. Conclusion
References
Rock bottoms, juggling balls and coalprints
1. Introduction
2. Researching metaphor production in L2 speech: Issues and challenges
3. The data
4. L1 and L2 metaphor use compared: The EuroCoAT corpus
5. Entrenchment: Conventional and unconventional metaphors in L1 and L2 discourse
5.1 The use of thematically related conventional metaphors in L2 speech
5.2 Conventional phraseological metaphors in VOICE
5.3 Conventional single word metaphors in VOICE
5.4 Novel uses of conventional English metaphors in VOICE
6. Repetition: Quoting and misquoting others’ metaphors
7. Summary of findings and avenues of further research
References
Figurative production in a computer-mediated discussion forum
1. Introduction
2. Background: Metaphor, frames and scenarios
3. Material and methods
3.1 Primary data
3.2 Identification and analytical procedures
4. Findings
4.1 Frames
4.2 Selected scenarios
4.3 Negotiation among posters
5. Conclusions
References
The production of time-related metaphors by people who have experienced pregnancy loss
1. Introduction
2. Metaphors of time
3. Methodology
3.1 Data collection
3.2 Data analysis
3.2.1 A Wmatrix analysis of the key semantic fields
3.2.2 An analysis of uses of the word “time”
3.2.3 A qualitative analysis of the metaphors used to talk about people’s ­experiences of time
4. Findings
4.1 Identification of the key semantic fields in Wmatrix
4.2 Analysis of the uses of the word “time”
4.3 Qualitative analysis of the metaphors used to talk about time
4.3.1 The reification of time and its entailments
4.3.2 Time displacement, expansion of time, and altered levels of awareness of time
4.3.2.1 Time displacement
4.3.2.2 The expansion of time
4.3.2.3 Increased and reduced levels of awareness of time
4.3.3 Personal relationships with time, with respect to the moving time versus moving ego perspective
4.3.4 Mixed metaphors
5. Conclusion
References
section 4. Other theoretical analysis and cognitive or computational modelling
Metaphor generation through context sensitive distributional semantics
1. Introduction
2. Language in minds, minds in the world
3. Computational approaches to metaphor
4. Semantics in perspective
5. Projecting metaphorical mappings
6. Finding coherent subspaces
7. The way forward
8. Conclusion
References
Mind the gap
1. Hyperbole and exaggeration
2. What’s in hyperbole?
3. Scaling up F and expressing affect
4. Context-relative scaling
5. Hyperbolic Figures
6. Concluding remarks
References
Figurative language
1. Introduction
2. The analytical tools: A thumbnail account
2.1 Cognitive operations: Definition and types
2.2 Inferential cognitive operations
2.2.1 Formal operations
2.2.2 Content operations
2.3 Benefits of the account
3. Figures of speech revisited
3.1 Metaphor, simile, and related figures
3.1.1 Allegory
3.1.2 Analogy
3.1.3 Paragon
3.1.4 Synesthesia
3.1.5 Hypocatastasis
3.2 Metonymy and related figures
3.2.1 Synecdoche
3.2.2 Hypallage
3.2.3 Anthimeria
3.2.4 Anthonomasia
3.2.5 Merism
3.2.6 Aphorisms
3.3 Overstatement
3.4 Understatement, meiosis, and litotes
3.5 Irony
3.5.1 Antiphrasis
3.5.2 Prolepsis
3.5.3 Sarcasm
3.6 Paradox and oxymoron
4. Constraining figurative language
4.1 The extended invariance principle
4.2 The correlation principle
4.3 Figure-specific principles: Adjusting scalar concepts and maximizing echoes and contrasts
4.3.1 Scalar symmetry and scalar pragmatic adjustment
4.3.2 Maximization of echoes and contrasts
5. Conclusion
References
Metaphor as sign and as symbol
1. A clash of signs and symbols
2. Signposting the career of metaphor
3. When symbols trump signs
4. Needles in a metaphor haystack
5. Metaphor in the moment
5.1 Metaphors in the news
6. Metaphors on the ground
7. Summary and conclusions
References
Topic Index
Author Index