Principles of Sustainable Energy Systems, Third Edition

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Authors
Contributors
1. Introduction to Sustainable Energy
1.1 Sustainability Principles
1.1.1 Energy Crisis: Security Issues
1.1.2 Sustainable Development
1.1.3 Sustainability Principles in Practice
1.1.4 Challenges for Sustainability Engineering
1.2 Carrying Capacity and Exponential Growth
1.2.1 Population Issue
1.2.2 Water Issue
1.2.3 Food Supply Issues
1.2.4 Per Capita Energy Use
1.2.5 Mathematics of Exponential Growth
1.3 Context for Sustainable Energy
1.3.1 Historical Energy Development in the United States
1.3.2 Current Energy Use
1.3.3 Future Energy Scenarios for the United States
1.4 Key Sustainability Considerations
1.4.1 The Challenge of Climate Change
1.4.2 Energy Economic Efficiency
1.4.3 Energy Return on Energy Invested
1.4.4 Cost of Energy Production
1.4.5 Other Costs of Energy Development
1.5 Energy Efficiency and Conservation
1.5.1 Energy End-Use Demand Reduction in Buildings
1.5.2 Energy End-Use Demand Reduction in Transportation
1.5.3 Energy Management in Industry and Manufacturing
1.6 Conventional Energy
1.6.1 Fossil Fuels
1.6.2 Nuclear Power
1.7 Renewable Energy
1.7.1 Wind Energy
1.7.2 Solar Photovoltaics
1.7.3 Solar Thermal
1.7.4 Ocean and Geothermal Energy
1.7.5 Biomass and Biofuel
1.7.6 Hydroelectric Generation
1.8 Hydrogen
1.9 NREL System Advisor Model
Energy Units and Conversion Factors
Problems
Discussion Questions
Online Resources
References
Suggested Readings
2. Economics of Energy Generation and Conservation Systems
2.1 Unit Cost of Energy
2.2 Payback Period
2.3 Time Value of Money
2.4 Inflation
2.5 Total Life Cycle Costs
2.6 Internal Rate of Return
2.7 Capital Recovery Factor
2.8 Levelized Cost of Energy
2.9 Societal and Environmental Costs
Problems
References
3. Energy Systems Analysis Methodologies
3.1 Life Cycle Approach
3.2 Process Chain Analysis
3.3 Input–Output (I/O) Analysis
3.4 Embedded Energy
3.5 Energy Return on Energy Invested
3.5.1 Calculation of EROI
3.5.2 EROI and Energy Budgets
3.5.3 EROI for a Wind Energy System
3.6 Greenhouse Gas Accounting
Problems
References
4. Energy Use and Efficiency in Buildings and Industry
4.1 Background
4.2 Energy Audits and Energy Management
4.3 Buildings
4.3.1 Calculations of Heating and Hot Water Loads in Buildings
4.3.1.1 Calculation of Heat Loss
4.3.1.2 Internal Heat Sources in Buildings
4.3.1.3 Degree-Day Method
4.3.1.4 Service Hot Water Load Calculation
4.3.2 Cooling Requirements for Buildings
4.3.3 Vapor-Compression Cycle
4.3.4 Evaporative Cooling
4.3.5 Energy Efficiency in Commercial Buildings
4.3.5.1 Commercial Buildings Case Studies
4.3.6 Energy Efficiency in Residential Buildings
4.3.6.1 Residential Case Study: Net-Zero Habitat for Humanity House
4.3.7 Zero-Energy Urban Districts
4.4 Industrial Energy Efficiency
4.4.1 Background
4.4.2 Improving Industrial Processes
4.4.3 Improvements in Industrial Equipment
Problems
References
5. Electricity Supply Systems
5.1 Historical Development of the U.S. Electric Power System
5.2 Electrical Transmission
5.3 The Electric Grid and Electricity Markets
5.3.1 Rate Structures
5.3.2 Electricity Markets
5.3.2.1 Energy Market
5.3.2.2 Capacity Market
5.3.2.3 Ancillary Services Market
5.3.2.4 Financial Transmission Rights Market
5.4 Grid Operations
5.5 Integration of Variable Renewable Energy into the Grid
5.6 Demand Response and Transactional Controls
Problems
References
6. Fossil Fuels
6.1 Fossil Fuel Resources and Extraction
6.1.1 Coal
6.1.2 Natural Gas
6.1.3 Petroleum
6.2 Fossil Fuel Combustion and Energy Conversion Technologies
6.2.1 Heat of Combustion
6.2.2 Fossil Fuel Use for Heat
6.2.3 Electricity Generation from Pulverized Coal
6.2.4 Electricity Generation from Natural Gas
6.2.5 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
6.3 Air Pollution from Fossil Fuel Combustion
6.3.1 Local and Regional Scale Air Pollution
6.3.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Climate Change
6.3.3 Carbon Capture and Sequestration
6.3.4 Leaving It in the Ground
Problems
References
7. Nuclear Energy
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Fission Mechanism
7.3 Available Nuclear Resources
7.3.1 Uranium Resources
7.3.2 Plutonium
7.4 Reactor Types
7.4.1 Pressurized-Water Reactors (PWRs)
7.4.2 Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs)
7.4.3 Heavy Water Cooled and Moderated Reactor
7.5 Nuclear Waste Management and Disposal
7.6 Spent Fuel Storage and Reprocessing
7.7 Nuclear Power Plant Accidents
7.8 Current Status and Cost of Nuclear Technology
7.9 Next-Generation Nuclear Technologies
Discussion Questions
Acknowledgment
References
8. Wind Energy
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Environmental Impact
8.2.1 Noise and Visual Impact
8.2.2 Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Land, and Water Use
8.2.3 Bird and Bat Fatalities
8.3 Power and Energy of Wind
8.4 Coefficient of Performance
8.5 Aerodynamics
8.6 Wind Characteristics
8.6.1 Wind Generation
8.6.2 Distribution of Wind
8.6.3 Wind Speed Increasing with Height
8.6.4 Log Law Wind Speed Profile
8.6.5 Power Law Wind Speed Profile
8.6.6 Probability of Observing a Given Wind Speed
8.7 Turbine Performance
8.7.1 Control Schemes
8.8 Levelized Cost of Energy for a Wind Turbine
8.9 Wind Farms
8.10 Offshore Wind Energy
8.11 System Advisor Model for Wind Farm Analysis
8.12 Additional Topics for Study
Acknowledgment
Problems
References
9. Capturing Solar Energy through Biomass
9.1 Biomass Production and Land Use
9.1.1 Waste Materials
9.1.2 Energy Crops
9.1.3 Algae
9.1.4 Land Use for Biomass Production
9.1.5 Important Properties of Biomass
9.2 Biomass Process Economics and Technology
9.2.1 Biomass Process Economics
9.2.2 Conversion of Biomass to Gaseous Fuels
9.2.2.1 Biomass to Biogas
9.2.2.2 Biomass to Synthetic Gas
9.2.3 Conversion of Biomass to Liquid Fuels
9.2.3.1 Corn Ethanol
9.2.3.2 Cellulosic Ethanol
9.2.3.3 Biomass Fermentation to Alternative Fuels
9.2.3.4 Biomass to Fischer–Tropsch Liquids
9.2.3.5 Biomass Pyrolysis Oil to Gasoline and Diesel
9.2.3.6 Compressed Gases as Transportation Fuel
9.2.3.7 Modern Concepts in Biofuel Conversion
9.2.4 Conversion of Biomass to Electricity
9.2.4.1 Direct Combustion
9.2.4.2 Combustion Equipment
9.2.4.3 Biomass Cofiring
9.2.5 Fossil and Biomass Fuel Properties
9.3 Use of Biomass in Developing Communities
9.4 Conclusions
Problems
References
10. Fundamentals of Solar Radiation
10.1 Physics of the Sun and Its Energy Transport
10.2 Thermal Radiation Fundamentals
10.2.1 Black-Body Radiation
10.2.2 Radiation Function Tables
10.2.3 Intensity of Radiation and Shape Factor
10.2.4 Transmission of Radiation through a Medium
10.3 Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship
10.3.1 Solar Time and Angles
10.3.2 Sun-Path Diagram
10.3.3 Shadow-Angle Protractor
10.4 Solar Radiation
10.4.1 Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation
10.5 Estimation of Terrestrial Solar Radiation
10.5.1 Atmospheric Extinction of Solar Radiation
10.5.2 Solar Radiation on Clear Days
10.5.3 Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface
10.6 TMY Data to Determine Solar Radiation
10.7 Measurement of Solar Radiation
10.7.1 Instruments for Measuring Solar Radiation and Sunshine
10.7.2 Detectors for Solar Radiation Instrumentation
10.7.3 Measurement of Sunshine Duration
10.7.4 Measurement of Spectral Solar Radiation
10.7.5 National Solar Radiation Database
Problems
References
11. Photovoltaics
11.1 Semiconductors
11.1.1 p–n Junction
11.1.2 Photovoltaic Effect
11.2 Analysis of Photovoltaic Cells
11.2.1 Efficiency of Solar Cells
11.2.2 Multijunction Solar Cells
11.2.3 Design of a Photovoltaic System
11.3 Manufacture of Solar Cells and Panels
11.3.1 Single Crystal and Polycrystalline Cells
11.3.2 Amorphous Silicon
11.4 Design for Remote Photovoltaic Applications
11.4.1 Estimation of Loads and Load Profiles
11.4.2 Estimation of Available Solar Radiation
11.4.3 PV System Sizing
11.4.4 Water Pumping Applications
11.5 Thin-Film PV Technology
11.6 Multilayer PV Technology
11.7 Today’s PV Market
11.8 Using System Advisor Model (SAM) for PV Performance Estimates
Problems
References
Suggested Readings
12. Solar Thermal Collectors and Systems
12.1 Radiation Properties of Materials
12.1.1 Selective Surfaces
12.1.2 Reflective Surfaces
12.2 Energy Balance for a Flat Plate Collector
12.3 Experimental Testing of Collectors
12.3.1 Testing Standards for Solar Thermal Collectors
12.4 Evacuated Tube Collectors
12.5 Transpired Air Collectors
12.6 Concentrating Solar Collectors
12.6.1 Line-Focus Concentrators
12.6.1.1 Parabolic Troughs
12.6.1.2 Linear Fresnel Collectors
12.6.2 Point-Focus Concentrators
12.7 Solar Domestic Hot Water, Space Heating, and Cooling Systems
12.7.1 Solar Thermosyphon Water Heating
12.7.2 Forced-Circulation Hot Water Systems
12.7.3 Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems for Buildings
12.7.4 Passive Solar Heating Systems
12.7.5 Solar Cooling Systems
12.8 Solar Thermal Power Plants
12.8.1 Parabolic Trough-Based Power Plants
12.8.2 Power Towers
12.9 Solar Industrial Process Heat
Problems
References
13. Ocean, Hydropower, and Geothermal Energy Conversion
13.1 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
13.1.1 Closed-Cycle Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
13.1.2 Open-Cycle Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
13.1.3 Direct Contact Evaporation and Condensation
13.1.4 Comparison of Open- and Closed-Cycle OTEC Systems
13.1.5 Cold-Water Pipe and Pumping Requirements
13.1.6 Economics
13.2 Tidal Energy
13.3 Wave Energy
13.3.1 Deep Water Wave Power
13.3.2 Wave Power Devices
13.4 Hydropower
13.5 Geothermal Energy
13.5.1 Geothermal Power
13.5.1.1 Current Commercial Geothermal Power Technologies
13.5.1.2 Technology Status
13.5.2 Direct Use of Geothermal Energy
Problems
References
14. Storage Technologies
14.1 Overview of Storage Technology
14.1.1 Applications
14.1.2 Technology Characterization
14.2 Mechanical Technologies
14.2.1 Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage
14.2.1.1 Turbines
14.2.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage
14.2.3 Flywheels
14.3 Direct Electrical Technologies
14.3.1 Ultracapacitors
14.3.2 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
14.4 Fundamentals of Batteries and Fuel Cells
14.4.1 Principles of Battery Operation
14.4.2 Cell Physics
14.5 Rechargeable Batteries
14.5.1 Lead-Acid Batteries
14.5.2 Nickel Metal (Ni-Cd and Ni-MH)
14.5.3 Lithium Ion
14.5.4 Flow Batteries
14.6 Fuel Cells and Hydrogen
14.6.1 Principles of Fuel Cell Operation
14.6.2 Types of Fuel Cells
14.6.3 Generation of Hydrogen
14.6.4 Storage and Transport
14.6.5 Thermodynamics and Economics
14.7 Thermal Energy Storage
14.7.1 Sensible Heat
14.7.2 Phase Change Heat Storage
14.7.3 Thermochemical Storage
14.7.4 Applications
14.7.5 Thermal Storage for Concentrating Collector Systems
14.7.6 Overnight Storage for Buildings and Domestic Hot Water
14.8 Virtual Storage in the Electric Transmission Grid
Problems
References
15. Transportation
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Overview of Transportation Systems and Energy Use
15.3 Well-to-Wheels Analysis
15.4 Biofuels
15.5 Hybrid Electric Vehicles
15.6 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
15.7 Combining HEVs or PHEVs with Biofuels
15.7.1 Petroleum Requirement
15.7.2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions
15.8 Future All-Electric System
15.9 Natural Gas as a Transportation Fuel
15.10 Hydrogen for Transportation
Problems
References
Online Resources
Index