Principles of GNSS, inertial, and multi-sensor integrated navigation systems 2nd ed

Principles of GNSS, Inertial, and
Multisensor Integrated Navigation Systems
Second Edition......Page 2
Contents
......Page 6
Preface......Page 18
Acknowledgments......Page 20
1.1 Fundamental Concepts......Page 22
1.2 Dead Reckoning......Page 26
1.3.1 Position-Fixing Methods......Page 28
1.3.2 Signal-Based Positioning......Page 33
1.3.3 Environmental Feature Matching......Page 35
1.4 The Navigation System......Page 36
1.4.1 Requirements......Page 37
1.4.2 Context......Page 38
1.4.4 Aiding......Page 39
1.4.5 Assistance and Cooperation......Page 40
1.5 Overview of the Book......Page 41
2.1 Coordinate Frames......Page 44
2.1.1 Earth-Centered Inertial Frame......Page 46
2.1.2 Earth-Centered Earth-Fixed Frame......Page 47
2.1.3 Local Navigation Frame......Page 48
2.1.5 Body Frame......Page 49
2.1.6 Other Frames......Page 50
2.2 Attitude, Rotation, and Resolving Ax......Page 51
2.2.1 Euler Attitude......Page 54
2.2.2 Coordinate Transformation Matrix......Page 56
2.2.3 Quaternion Attitude......Page 61
2.2.4 Rotation Vector......Page 63
2.3 Kinematics......Page 64
2.3.1 Angular Rate......Page 65
2.3.2 Cartesian Position......Page 67
2.3.3 Velocity......Page 69
2.3.4 Acceleration......Page 71
2.3.5 Motion with Respect to a Rotating......Page 72
2.4 Earth Surface and Gravity Models......Page 74
2.4.1 The Ellipsoid Model of the Earth’s......Page 75
2.4.2 Curvilinear Position......Page 78
2.4.3 Position Conversion......Page 82
2.4.4 The Geoid, Orthometric Height, and......Page 85
2.4.5 Projected Coordinates......Page 86
2.4.6 Earth Rotation......Page 87
2.4.7 Specific Force, Gravitation, and G......Page 88
2.5 Frame Transformations......Page 93
2.5.1 Inertial and Earth Frames......Page 94
2.5.2 Earth and Local Navigation Frames......Page 95
2.5.3 Inertial and Local Navigation Fram......Page 96
2.5.4 Earth and Local Tangent-Plane Fram......Page 97
2.5.5 Transposition of Navigation Soluti......Page 98
References......Page 99
Chapter 3 Kalman Filter-Based Esitmation
......Page 102
3.1.1 Elements of the Kalman Filter......Page 103
3.1.2 Steps of the Kalman Filter......Page 105
3.1.3 Kalman Filter Applications......Page 107
3.2.1 Definitions......Page 108
3.2.2 Kalman Filter Algorithm......Page 112
3.2.3 System Model......Page 117
3.2.4 Measurement Model......Page 121
3.2.5 Kalman Filter Behavior and State O......Page 124
3.2.6 Closed-Loop Kalman Filter......Page 127
3.2.7 Sequential Measurement Update......Page 128
3.3.1 Tuning and Stability......Page 130
3.3.2 Algorithm Design......Page 132
3.3.3 Numerical Issues......Page 134
3.3.4 Time Synchronization......Page 135
3.4 Extensions to the Kalman Filter......Page 138
3.4.1 Extended and Linearized Kalman Fil......Page 139
3.4.2 Unscented Kalman Filter......Page 142
3.4.3 Time-Correlated Noise......Page 144
3.4.4 Adaptive Kalman Filter......Page 145
3.4.5 Multiple-Hypothesis Filtering......Page 146
3.4.6 Kalman Smoothing......Page 150
3.5 The Particle Filter......Page 152
References......Page 156
Chapter 4 Inertial Sensors
......Page 158
4.1 Accelerometers......Page 160
4.1.1 Pendulous Accelerometers......Page 161
4.2 Gyroscopes......Page 163
4.2.1 Optical Gyroscopes......Page 164
4.2.2 Vibratory Gyroscopes......Page 167
4.3 Inertial Measurement Units......Page 170
4.4 Error Characteristics......Page 172
4.4.1 Biases......Page 173
4.4.2 Scale Factor and Cross-Coupling Er......Page 175
4.4.3 Random Noise......Page 176
4.4.4 Further Error Sources......Page 178
4.4.5 Vibration-Induced Errors......Page 180
4.4.6 Error Models......Page 181
References......Page 182
Chapter 5 Inertial Navigation
......Page 184
5.1 Introduction to Inertial Navigation......Page 185
5.2.1 Attitude Update......Page 189
5.2.2 Specific-Force Frame Transformatio......Page 191
5.2.3 Velocity Update......Page 192
5.3 Earth-Frame Navigation Equations......Page 193
5.3.1 Attitude Update......Page 194
5.3.3 Velocity Update......Page 195
5.3.4 Position Update......Page 196
5.4.1 Attitude Update......Page 197
5.4.2 Specific-Force Frame Transformatio......Page 199
5.4.4 Position Update......Page 200
5.4.5 Wander-Azimuth Implementation......Page 201
5.5.1 Precision Attitude Update......Page 204
5.5.2 Precision Specific-Force Frame Tra......Page 208
5.5.3 Precision Velocity and Position Up......Page 209
5.5.4 Effects of Sensor Sampling Interva......Page 210
5.6 Initialization and Alignment......Page 216
5.6.2 Attitude Initialization......Page 217
5.6.3 Fine Alignment......Page 221
5.7 INS Error Propagation......Page 224
5.7.1 Short-Term Straight-Line Error Pro......Page 225
5.7.2 Medium- and Long-Term Error Propag......Page 230
5.7.3 Maneuver-Dependent Errors......Page 233
5.8 Indexed IMU......Page 235
5.9 Partial IMU......Page 236
References......Page 237
6.1 Attitude Measurement......Page 238
6.1.1 Magnetic Heading......Page 239
6.1.2 Marine Gyrocompass......Page 243
6.1.3 Strapdown Yaw-Axis Gyro......Page 244
6.1.4 Heading from Trajectory......Page 246
6.1.6 Accelerometer Leveling and Tilt Se......Page 247
6.1.7 Horizon Sensing......Page 248
6.1.8 Attitude and Heading Reference Sys......Page 249
6.2 Height and Depth Measurement......Page 250
6.2.1 Barometric Altimeter......Page 251
6.2.2 Depth Pressure Sensor......Page 252
6.2.3 Radar Altimeter......Page 253
6.3 Odometry......Page 254
6.3.1 Linear Odometry......Page 255
6.3.2 Differential Odometry......Page 259
6.3.3 Integrated Odometry and Partial IM......Page 260
6.4 Pedestrian Dead Reckoning Using Step......Page 261
6.5 Doppler Radar and Sonar......Page 266
6.6.2 Air Data......Page 270
References......Page 271
7.1.1 Self-Positioning and Remote Positi......Page 276
7.1.2 Relative Positioning......Page 278
7.1.3 Proximity......Page 279
7.1.4 Ranging......Page 281
7.1.5 Angular Positioning......Page 290
7.1.6 Pattern Matching......Page 292
7.1.7 Doppler Positioning......Page 295
7.2.1 Modulation Types......Page 297
7.2.2 Radio Spectrum......Page 298
7.3.1 Architecture......Page 300
7.3.2 Signal Timing Measurement......Page 301
7.3.3 Position Determination from Rangin......Page 303
7.4.1 Ionosphere, Troposphere, and Surfa......Page 308
7.4.2 Attenuation, Reflection, Multipath......Page 309
7.4.3 Resolution, Noise, and Tracking Er......Page 311
7.4.5 Effect of Signal Geometry......Page 313
References......Page 318
Chapter 8 GNSS: Fundamentals, Signals, and Satellites
......Page 320
8.1.1 GNSS Architecture......Page 321
8.1.2 Signals and Range Measurement......Page 324
8.1.3 Positioning......Page 328
8.1.4 Error Sources and Performance Limi......Page 330
8.2.1 Global Positioning System......Page 333
8.2.3 Galileo......Page 334
8.2.6 Augmentation Systems......Page 335
8.2.7 System Compatibility......Page 337
8.3 GNSS Signals......Page 338
8.3.1 Signal Types......Page 339
8.3.2 Global Positioning System......Page 341
8.3.3 GLONASS......Page 344
8.3.4 Galileo......Page 345
8.3.6 Regional Systems......Page 347
8.4.1 GPS......Page 348
8.4.2 GLONASS......Page 349
8.4.5 Time Base Synchronization......Page 350
8.5.1 Satellite Orbits......Page 351
8.5.2 Satellite Position and Velocity......Page 353
8.5.3 Range, Range Rate, and Line of Sight......Page 360
8.5.4 Elevation and Azimuth......Page 365
References......Page 366
Chapter 9 GNSS: User Equipment Processing and Errors......Page 370
9.1.1 Antennas......Page 371
9.1.2 Reference Oscillator......Page 372
9.1.3 Receiver Front End......Page 373
9.1.4 Baseband Signal Processor......Page 376
9.1.4.1 BPSK Code Correlation Function......Page 380
9.1.4.2 BOC Correlation......Page 382
9.2.1 Acquisition......Page 388
9.2.2 Code Tracking......Page 393
9.2.3 Carrier Tracking......Page 398
9.2.4 Tracking Lock Detection......Page 405
9.2.5 Navigation-Message Demodulation......Page 406
9.2.6 Carrier-Power-to-Noise-Density Mea......Page 407
9.2.7 Pseudo-Range, Pseudo-Range-Rate, a......Page 408
9.3 Range Error Sources......Page 410
9.3.1 Ephemeris Prediction and Satellite......Page 411
9.3.2 Ionosphere and Troposphere Propaga......Page 412
9.3.3 Tracking Errors......Page 416
9.3.4 Multipath, Nonline-of-Sight, and D......Page 422
9.4 Navigation Processor......Page 428
9.4.1 Single-Epoch Navigation Solution......Page 430
9.4.2 Filtered Navigation Solution......Page 434
9.4.3 Signal Geometry and Navigation Sol......Page 445
9.4.4 Position Error Budget......Page 450
References......Page 452
10.1 Differential GNSS......Page 458
10.1.1 Spatial and Temporal Correlation of GNSS Errors......Page 459
10.1.2 Local and Regional Area DGNSS......Page 460
10.1.3 Wide Area DGNSS and Precise Point Positioning......Page 461
10.1.4 Relative GNSS......Page 462
10.2 Real-Time Kinematic Carrier-Phase Positioning and Attitude Determination......Page 463
10.2.1 Principles of Accumulated Delta Range Positioning......Page 464
10.2.2 Single-Epoch Navigation Solution Using Double-Differenced ADR......Page 467
10.2.3 Geometry-Based Integer Ambiguity Resolution......Page 468
10.2.4 Multifrequency Integer Ambiguity Resolution......Page 470
10.2.5 GNSS Attitude Determination......Page 471
10.3 Interference Rejection and Weak Signal Processing......Page 472
10.3.2 Antenna Systems......Page 473
10.3.3 Receiver Front-End Filtering......Page 474
10.3.4 Extended Range Tracking......Page 475
10.3.5 Receiver Sensitivity......Page 476
10.3.7 Vector Tracking......Page 477
10.4 Mitigation of Multipath Interference and Nonline-of-Sight Reception......Page 479
10.4.1 Antenna-Based Techniques......Page 480
10.4.2 Receiver-Based Techniques......Page 481
10.4.3 Navigation-Processor-Based Techniques......Page 482
10.5 Aiding, Assistance, and Orbit Prediction......Page 483
10.5.1 Acquisition and Velocity Aiding......Page 484
10.5.2 Assisted GNSS......Page 485
10.6 Shadow Matching......Page 486
References......Page 488
11.1 Aircraft Navigation Systems......Page 494
11.1.1 Distance Measuring Equipment......Page 495
11.1.2 Range-Bearing Systems......Page 500
11.1.3 Nondirectional Beacons......Page 501
11.2 Enhanced Loran......Page 502
11.2.1 Signals......Page 503
11.2.2 User Equipment and Positioning......Page 505
11.2.3 Error Sources......Page 508
11.3 Phone Positioning......Page 509
11.3.1 Proximity and Pattern Matching......Page 510
11.3.2 Ranging......Page 511
11.4.1 Iridium Positioning......Page 512
11.4.3 AM Radio Broadcasts......Page 513
11.4.5 Digital Television and Radio......Page 514
11.4.6 Generic Radio Positioning......Page 515
References......Page 516
12.1 Pseudolites......Page 520
12.1.2 Locata and Terralite XPS......Page 521
12.2 Ultrawideband......Page 522
12.2.1 Modulation Schemes......Page 523
12.2.2 Signal Timing......Page 524
12.2.3 Positioning......Page 525
12.3.1 Wireless Local Area Networks (Wi-......Page 527
12.3.2 Wireless Personal Area Networks......Page 528
12.3.4 Bluetooth Low Energy......Page 529
12.4 Underwater Acoustic Positioning......Page 530
12.5.3 Infrared......Page 533
References......Page 534
Chapter 13 Environmental Feature Matching
......Page 538
13.1 Map Matching......Page 540
13.1.1 Digital Road Maps......Page 541
13.1.2 Road Link Identification......Page 542
13.1.3 Road Positioning......Page 547
13.1.4 Rail Map Matching......Page 548
13.1.5 Pedestrian Map Matching......Page 549
13.2 Terrain-Referenced Navigation......Page 551
13.2.1 Sequential Processing......Page 552
13.2.2 Batch Processing......Page 553
13.2.4 Laser TRN......Page 556
13.2.5 Sonar TRN......Page 557
13.2.7 Terrain Database Height Aiding......Page 558
13.3 Image-Based Navigation......Page 559
13.3.1 Imaging Sensors......Page 560
13.3.2 Image Feature Comparison......Page 562
13.3.3 Position Fixing Using Individual......Page 564
13.3.5 Visual Odometry......Page 567
13.3.7 Stellar Navigation......Page 569
13.4 Other Feature-Matching Techniques......Page 571
13.4.1 Gravity Gradiometry......Page 572
References......Page 573
Chapter 14 INS/GNSS Integration
......Page 580
14.1 Integration Architectures......Page 581
14.1.1 Correction of the Inertial Naviga......Page 583
14.1.2 Loosely Coupled Integration......Page 587
14.1.3 Tightly Coupled Integration......Page 588
14.1.4 GNSS Aiding......Page 590
14.1.5 Deeply Coupled Integration......Page 592
14.2 System Model and State Selection......Page 594
14.2.1 State Selection and Observability......Page 595
14.2.2 INS State Propagation in an Inert......Page 598
14.2.3 INS State Propagation in an Earth......Page 603
14.2.4 INS State Propagation Resolved in......Page 605
14.2.5 Additional IMU Error States......Page 610
14.2.6 INS System Noise......Page 611
14.2.7 GNSS State Propagation and System......Page 614
14.2.8 State Initialization......Page 615
14.3 Measurement Models......Page 617
14.3.1 Loosely Coupled Integration......Page 619
14.3.2 Tightly Coupled Integration......Page 623
14.3.3 Deeply Coupled Integration......Page 627
14.3.4 Estimation of Attitude and Instru......Page 635
14.4.1 Differential GNSS......Page 636
14.4.2 Carrier-Phase Positioning......Page 637
14.4.3 GNSS Attitude......Page 639
14.4.4 Large Heading Errors......Page 640
14.4.5 Advanced IMU Error Modeling......Page 642
References......Page 643
15.1 Transfer Alignment......Page 648
15.1.1 Conventional Measurement Matching......Page 650
15.1.2 Rapid Transfer Alignment......Page 652
15.1.3 Reference Navigation System......Page 654
15.2.1 Coarse Alignment......Page 655
15.2.2 Fine Alignment......Page 658
15.3.1 Stationary-Condition Detection......Page 659
15.3.2 Zero Velocity Update......Page 660
15.3.3 Zero Angular Rate Update......Page 661
15.4.1 Land Vehicle Constraints......Page 662
15.4.2 Pedestrian Constraints......Page 664
References......Page 665
16.1 Integration Architectures......Page 668
16.1.1 Cascaded Single-Epoch Integration......Page 669
16.1.2 Centralized Single-Epoch Integrat......Page 672
16.1.3 Cascaded Filtered Integration......Page 673
16.1.4 Centralized Filtered Integration......Page 675
16.1.5 Federated Filtered Integration......Page 676
16.1.6 Hybrid Integration Architectures......Page 679
16.1.7 Total-State Kalman Filter Employi......Page 680
16.1.8 Error-State Kalman Filter......Page 682
16.1.9 Primary and Reversionary Moding......Page 684
16.1.10 Context-Adaptive Moding......Page 686
16.2 Dead Reckoning, Attitude, and Heigh......Page 687
16.2.1 Attitude......Page 688
16.2.2 Height and Depth......Page 694
16.2.3 Odometry......Page 695
16.2.4 Pedestrian Dead Reckoning Using S......Page 698
16.2.5 Doppler Radar and Sonar......Page 701
16.3 Position-Fixing Measurements......Page 703
16.3.1 Position Measurement Integration......Page 704
16.3.2 Ranging Measurement Integration......Page 706
16.3.3 Angular Measurement Integration......Page 711
16.3.4 Line Fix Integration......Page 715
16.3.5 Handling Ambiguous Measurements......Page 716
16.3.6 Feature Tracking and Mapping......Page 718
16.3.7 Aiding of Position-Fixing Systems......Page 719
References......Page 720
Chapter 17 Fault Detection, Integrity Monitoring, and Testing
......Page 722
17.1.2 Dead Reckoning, Attitude, and Hei......Page 723
17.1.4 Terrestrial Radio Navigation......Page 724
17.1.6 Integration Algorithm......Page 725
17.2.1 Sensor Outputs......Page 726
17.3 Kalman Filter Measurement Innovatio......Page 727
17.3.1 Innovation Filtering......Page 728
17.3.2 Innovation Sequence Monitoring......Page 730
17.3.3 Remedying Biased State Estimates......Page 732
17.4 Direct Consistency Checks......Page 733
17.4.1 Measurement Consistency Checks an......Page 734
17.4.2 Parallel Solutions......Page 736
17.5 Infrastructure-Based Integrity Moni......Page 740
17.6 Solution Protection and Performance......Page 741
17.7.1 Field Trials......Page 745
17.7.4 Software Simulation......Page 746
References......Page 747
18.1 Design and Development......Page 750
18.2 Aviation......Page 752
18.4 Land Vehicle Applications......Page 754
18.5 Rail Navigation......Page 755
18.6 Marine Navigation......Page 756
18.8 Spacecraft Navigation......Page 758
18.9 Pedestrian Navigation......Page 759
18.10 Other Applications......Page 760
18.11 Future Trends......Page 761
References......Page 762
List of Key Symbols......Page 764
Acronyms and Abbreviations......Page 772
About the Author......Page 778
DVD Contents......Page 780
Index......Page 784