We live in a digital age. The proliferation of digital technology, and the convergence of computing and communication devices, has transformed the way in which we socialise and do business. While overwhelmingly positive, there has also been a dark side to these developments. Proving the maxim that crime follows opportunity, virtually every advance has been accompanied by a corresponding niche to be exploited for criminal purposes; so-called 'cybercrimes'. Whether it be fraud, child pornography, stalking, criminal copyright infringement or attacks on computers themselves, criminals will find ways to exploit new technology. The challenge for all countries is to ensure their criminal laws keep pace. The challenge is a global one, and much can be learned from the experience of other jurisdictions. Focusing on Australia, Canada, the UK and the US, this book provides a comprehensive analysis of the legal principles that apply to the prosecution of cybercrimes.
Author(s): Jonathan Clough
Edition: 1
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Year: 2010
Language: English
Pages: 505
HALF-TITLE......Page 3
TITLE......Page 5
COPYRIGHT......Page 6
CONTENTS......Page 7
PREFACE......Page 11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......Page 13
ABBREVIATIONS......Page 14
Australia......Page 15
Canada......Page 17
New Zealand......Page 18
United Kingdom......Page 19
United States......Page 21
Australia......Page 29
Northern Territory......Page 34
South Australia......Page 35
Victoria......Page 36
Canada......Page 37
United Kingdom......Page 40
Federal......Page 46
State legislation......Page 52
International instruments......Page 53
PART I: Introduction......Page 57
1. The evolution of cybercrime......Page 59
B. Accessibility......Page 61
C. Anonymity......Page 62
F. Absence of capable guardians......Page 63
3. Defining cybercrime......Page 64
4. Cyberterrorism......Page 67
5. The scale of the problem......Page 69
6. Online/offline consistency......Page 71
7. Virtual crimes?......Page 72
8. A global problem: the Convention on Cybercrime......Page 77
PART II: Computer as target......Page 81
1. Introduction......Page 83
A. Unauthorised access to computers or computer systems......Page 84
Modification of data......Page 85
Use of a computer......Page 86
B. Malicious software......Page 88
Viruses and worms......Page 89
Trojans......Page 90
Bots......Page 91
Spyware......Page 92
C. Denial of service attacks......Page 93
2. The prevalence of cybercrime......Page 95
3. The legislative environment......Page 96
A. Australia......Page 99
B. Canada......Page 101
D. The United States......Page 102
A. Australia......Page 104
C. The United Kingdom......Page 105
D. The United States......Page 107
2. The meaning of ‘computer’......Page 108
A. Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom......Page 109
B. The United States......Page 112
3. Access......Page 114
A. Australia......Page 116
Data held in a computer......Page 117
B. The United Kingdom......Page 118
C. Canada......Page 119
D. The United States......Page 121
4. Unauthorised......Page 126
Unauthorised......Page 129
Exceeding authorised access......Page 141
5. Fault element......Page 148
6. Additional elements......Page 151
1. Introduction......Page 157
Modification of data......Page 158
Impairment of communication......Page 159
D. The United States......Page 160
B. Canada......Page 162
C. The United Kingdom......Page 163
Transmission of a program, information, code, or command......Page 164
4. Modification or impairment......Page 167
A. Australia......Page 168
C. The United Kingdom......Page 170
Damage......Page 173
Loss......Page 175
1. Introduction......Page 176
A. Possession or control of data......Page 179
3. Canada......Page 180
4. The United Kingdom......Page 184
‘Access device’......Page 186
Counterfeit/Unauthorised access device......Page 188
B. 18 USC § 1030(a)(6)......Page 189
1. The changing nature of telecommunications......Page 191
A. The Cybercrime Convention......Page 192
B. Australia......Page 194
C. Canada......Page 195
D. The United Kingdom......Page 196
E. The United States......Page 197
A. Australia......Page 199
B. Canada......Page 201
C. The United Kingdom......Page 204
D. The United States......Page 205
4. What is a ‘communication’? (Content vs. Traffic data)......Page 208
A. Australia......Page 210
B. Canada......Page 211
C. The United Kingdom......Page 213
D. The United States......Page 217
5. ‘Interception’ (Live vs. Stored communications)......Page 220
A. Australia......Page 222
B. Canada......Page 225
C. The United Kingdom......Page 226
Interception under the Wiretap Act......Page 229
Access under the SCA......Page 230
PART III: Fraud and related offences......Page 237
Request for urgent assistance......Page 239
A. Fraudulent sales online......Page 241
B. Advance-fee schemes......Page 243
D. Fraudulent investments......Page 244
E. Identity Crime......Page 245
Phishing......Page 248
Pharming......Page 250
Hacking and use of malware......Page 251
Credit card skimming......Page 252
Carding......Page 254
2. The scale of the problem......Page 255
3. Legal responses......Page 257
A. Electronic funds transfer......Page 258
B. Deceiving a machine......Page 260
C. Can a machine consent?......Page 261
D. Computer-related forgery......Page 262
4. Identity theft......Page 263
A. Defining identification information......Page 266
B. Possessing identity information......Page 269
C. Trafficking identity information......Page 271
D. Manufacturing identity information......Page 275
1. Copyright infringement is (not) theft......Page 277
2. Legislative provisions......Page 281
A. Commercial infringement......Page 283
B. Distribution......Page 284
C. Mens rea......Page 286
D. Penalties......Page 287
1. Electronic junk mail......Page 288
2. Regulating spam......Page 291
3. Anti-spam legislation......Page 294
A. Civil or criminal enforcement......Page 295
B. Commercial and/or bulk email......Page 296
C. Consent......Page 297
E. Criminal offences......Page 298
PART IV: Content-related offences......Page 301
1. Child abuse online......Page 303
2. The criminalisation of child pornography......Page 307
3. Defining child pornography......Page 311
A. The definition of ‘minor’......Page 312
B. The meaning of sexually explicit conduct......Page 315
C. The medium of depiction......Page 321
D. ‘Virtual’ child pornography......Page 327
4. Producing child pornography......Page 338
5. Offering or making available......Page 342
A. Publish......Page 343
B. Make available......Page 344
C. Show......Page 346
D. Advertise......Page 347
6. Distributing or transmitting......Page 348
A. Distribution......Page 349
C. Transport......Page 350
7. Procuring child pornography......Page 351
A. Accessing......Page 353
C. Receiving......Page 354
D. Requesting......Page 356
8. Possession of child pornography......Page 357
Actual custody......Page 358
De facto custody......Page 366
Knowledge of possession......Page 367
C. Intention to possess......Page 376
9. Defences......Page 380
PART V: Offences against the person......Page 385
1. Sexual predators online......Page 387
2. Transmitting indecent or obscenematerial tominors......Page 393
A. Australia......Page 394
B. The United Kingdom......Page 395
C. The United States......Page 397
A. Australia......Page 399
B. Canada......Page 401
C. The United Kingdom......Page 405
4. Inducing or procuring......Page 407
A. Australia......Page 409
B. The United Kingdom......Page 410
C. The United States......Page 411
A. The United Kingdom......Page 417
B. The United States......Page 420
1. Harassment in cyberspace......Page 421
2. Legislative responses......Page 424
A. Conduct element......Page 427
B. Fault element......Page 429
C. Impact on the victim......Page 430
3. Forms of cyberstalking......Page 431
A. Communicating with the victim......Page 432
B. Publishing information about the victim......Page 435
D. Surveillance......Page 440
1. Digital voyeurs......Page 444
2. Criminalising voyeurism......Page 445
3. Legislative responses......Page 449
A. To what depictions does it apply?......Page 450
B. Where does it apply?......Page 451
C. To what conduct does it apply?......Page 455
D. What is the fault element?......Page 456
E. Does it extend to distribution of images?......Page 457
F. What defences are available?......Page 458
PART VI: Jurisdiction......Page 459
1. Crime in cyberspace......Page 461
2. Prescriptive jurisdiction......Page 462
3. Adjudicative jurisdiction......Page 466
4. Enforcement jurisdiction......Page 469
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 473
INDEX......Page 494
