Principles and Practice of Blockchains

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editors
Part I Blockchain Fundamentals
Fundamentals of Blockchain Technology
1 Introduction
2 Blockchain Features and Architecture
2.1 Proof of Work (PoW)
2.2 Proof of Stake (PoS)
2.3 Proof of Burn (PoB)
2.4 Proof of Capacity (PoC)
2.5 Proof of Elapsed Time (PoET)
3 Smart Contracts
4 Security Features
4.1 Security on Infrastructure
4.1.1 Decentralisation
4.1.2 Transparency
4.1.3 Immutability
4.1.4 Consistency
4.2 Security on Transactions
5 Applications
5.1 Electronic Voting
5.2 Healthcare Services
5.3 Identity Management
5.4 Access Control
5.5 Decentralised Notaries
5.6 Supply Chain Management
6 Conclusion and Future Works
References
Identification of Illicit Blockchain Transactions Using Hyperparameters Auto-tuning
1 Introduction
2 Related Work
3 Experimental Dataset
4 Experimental Setup and Evaluation
4.1 Offline Learning
4.2 Online Learning
4.3 PCA Analysis
5 Conclusions
References
Multidimensional Blockchain: Construction and Security Analysis
1 Introduction
2 Robust Distributed Ledgers
3 Multidimensional Blockchain
4 Multidimensional Blockchain Security Analysis
4.1 Security Analysis of Underlying Robust Distributed Ledgers
4.2 Intersystem Exchange Security Analysis
4.3 Scaling Security Analysis
5 Search and Verification Protocol
6 Theoretical and Experimental Analysis
7 Conclusion
References
Blockchain Project Workflow Execution for Trustless Operation
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
2.1 Blockchain and Workflow Operations
2.2 Salient Features of Blockchain
2.3 Blockchain Structure
2.4 Project Workflow Trustless Operation
2.5 Smart Contract and Workflow Project Dynamics
2.6 Structure of the Smart Contract in Workflow
2.7 Smart Contracts and Traditional Contracts
2.8 Smart Contract Applications
2.9 Advantages of Smart Contracts
2.10 Information and Sharing in Inter-organizational Workflows
2.11 Blockchain-Smart Contract Workflow Solutions
2.12 Project Workflow Execution Layers
3 Proposed Methodology
4 Results and Discussions
4.1 Smart Contracts: Ethereum Platform
4.2 Concept of Cryptocurrency
4.3 Decentralized Applications (DApps)
5 Survey Research on Blockchain Applications
5.1 Smart Contract and Blockchain in Food Tracing
5.2 Blockchain in Food Traceability: A Systematic Literature Review
5.3 Blockchain Technology in Supply Chain
5.4 Towards Automated Migration for Blockchain-Based Decentralized Application
5.5 Ensure Traceability in European Food Supply Chain by Using a Blockchain System
5.6 A Proof-of-Concept of Farmer-to-Consumer Food Traceability on Blockchain for Local Communities
5.7 Blockchain and IoT-Based Food Traceability for Smart Agriculture
5.8 A Trustworthy Food Resume Traceability System Based on Blockchain Technology
5.9 Smart Contract and Blockchain in Food Tracing
5.10 Blockchain Technologies and Their Applications in Data Science and Cyber Security
5.11 Towards Automated Migration for Blockchain-Based Decentralized Application
5.12 Rebuilding Food Supply Chain with the Introduction of Decentralized Credit Mechanism
6 Conclusion
References
Part II Blockchains in Internet of Things and Mobile Phones
Protecting Location Privacy in Blockchain-Based Mobile Internet of Things
1 Introduction
2 Related Work
3 System Overview and Design Goals
3.1 Blockchain System Model
3.2 Malicious Entities
3.3 Attacker's Goal and Strategies
3.4 Problem Formulation and Design Goals
4 The BlockPriv Approach
5 Scheme Analysis
5.1 Privacy Analysis
5.1.1 Privacy Bound
5.1.2 Obfuscating Paths
5.2 Utility Analysis
5.2.1 Loss of Utility Bound
5.3 Security Analysis
5.3.1 Collusion Attack
5.3.2 Map Matching Attack
5.3.3 Time Reachability-Based Path Reconstruction Attack
5.3.4 Transaction Dropping Attack
5.3.5 Security Limitations
6 Experimental Evaluation
6.1 Experimental Settings
6.1.1 Dataset Description
6.1.2 Simulation Setup
6.2 Experiment Results
6.2.1 Utility Versus Privacy Level
6.2.2 Utility Versus Number of Sensitive Location Types
6.2.3 User-Level Correlation Analysis
7 Conclusion and Future Direction
References
A Blockchain-Based Machine Learning Intrusion Detection System for Internet of Things
1 Introduction
2 IoT Security Attacks and Their Solutions
3 Blockchain of Things (Blockchain with IoT)
3.1 Advantages of Blockchain of Things
3.2 Disadvantages of Blockchain of Things
3.3 Some Related Work of Blockchain of Things
4 ML and DL Algorithms in IoT Security
5 Combining Technologies (Blockchain, IoT, and ML/DL) for IoT Security
5.1 Brief Summary of Our Problem Statement
5.2 Our Proposed Approach
6 Experimentation and Results
7 Conclusions and Future Directions
References
ECOM: Epoch Randomness-Based Consensus Committee Configuration for IoT Blockchains
1 Introduction
2 An Overview of Scaling Blockchain Solutions
2.1 Off-Chain Blockchain Solutions
2.2 On-Chain Blockchain
3 Epoch Randomness and Configuration
3.1 Verifiable Random Function (VRF)
3.2 Verifiable Secret Sharing (VSS)
3.3 Publicly Verifiable Secret Sharing (PVSS)
4 Network Traffic Model in Blockchain
4.1 Unstructured P2P Network Model
4.2 Structured P2P Network Model
5 ECOM: An Epoch Randomness-Based Committee Configuration for IoT Blockchains
5.1 ECOM System Design
5.2 Prototype Implementation
5.3 Performance Evaluation
5.4 Security Analysis
6 Conclusions
References
Customer Outcome Framework for Blockchain-Based Mobile Phone Applications
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
2.1 Singapore's Electronic Payment Journey
2.2 Blockchain and AI Combination in the Metaverse
2.3 Mobile Payment Applications
2.4 Personalized Recommendation Systems
2.5 Shopping Motivation Using BMPAs
2.6 Means-End Chain Theory
2.7 Social Identity Theory
2.8 Prospect Theory
2.9 Utilitarian Value, Hedonic Value, and BMPA Identification
2.10 BMPA Trustworthiness, BMPA Identification, and Repeat Customers' BMPA Usage
2.11 Perceived Risk
2.12 Control Variables and the Research Model
3 Discussions
3.1 Theoretical Implications
3.2 Practical Implications
3.3 Limitation
4 Conclusions and Future Research
References
Part III Blockchains and Healthcare
A Secure Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Healthcare System Using Blockchain
1 Introduction
2 Overview and Related Work
2.1 Consensus Protocols
2.1.1 Proof-of-Work (PoW)
2.1.2 Proof-of-Stake (PoS)
2.1.3 Delegated Proof-of-Stake (DPoS)
2.1.4 Proof-of-Authority (PoA)
2.1.5 Access Control Mechanism with Smart Contract for Data Sharing
2.2 Smart Contract
3 Methodology
3.1 System Design
3.2 Content Extraction Signature
3.2.1 Key Generation GK(k)
3.2.2 Signature Generation Algorithm Sig (SK, M, CEAS)
3.2.3 Signature Extraction Algorithm Ext(pk,M,σF,X)
3.2.4 Signature Verification Algorithm Ver(pk,M,σE)
4 Implementation
4.1 Front End
4.2 EHR Manager
4.3 Ethereum Proof-of-Authority
4.4 Storing EHR
4.5 Sharing of EHR
5 Evaluation
5.1 Security Assessment
5.1.1 Privacy and Sharing
5.1.2 Storage Management
5.1.3 Data Audit
6 Conclusion
References
An Investigation of Blockchain Technology and Smart Contracts Deployment in Smart Medicine 4.0
1 Introduction
1.1 Smart Life
1.2 Smart Contracts
2 Current Blockchain Technology and Smart Contracts Issues and Challenges
2.1 Blockchain and Smart Contracts in a Nutshell
2.2 Advantages in Comparison with Non-blockchain Systems
2.2.1 Generic Blockchain Advantages
2.2.2 Blockchain Advantages for Healthcare Industry
2.2.3 Blockchain and Smart Contracts Challenges
2.2.4 Security of IoT and IoHT Critical Infrastructure: Blockchain as a Solution
2.2.5 Summary
2.3 Legislation and Legislative Initiatives Related to Blockchain and Smart Contracts in Different Jurisdictions
2.3.1 General Legal Regulation Provisions of Blockchain and Smart Contracts
2.3.2 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA)
2.3.3 General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
2.3.4 Smart Medicine as a Target: The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) Recommendations
3 Internet of Health Things Blockchain and Smart Contracts
3.1 Attacks on the Healthcare Sector: Defense on the Base of the Blockchain
3.2 IoT-Blockchain-Based Monitoring Model and Smart Contract as a Verification Link for Smart Healthcare Purposes
3.3 Successful Implementation of the Blockchain and Smart Contracts for Secure HER Sharing in E-Healthcare
3.4 Health Records Authorization Process with the Implementation of the Permissioned Blockchain and Smart Contracts: ABAC as an Important Tool for Smart Healthcare
3.5 Extended Usage of the Smart Contracts: Functionalities of Smart Contracts
3.6 GDPR Insight: Combination of GDPR and Blockchain
3.7 Healthcare Data-Trading Market Based on Blockchain
3.8 Blockchain-Based Healthcare Monitoring Architecture
3.9 IoT-Blockchain Ecosystem: Combination of Blockchain and Swarm Exchange Techniques
3.10 Blockchain-Based Database with Higher Level of Security Protection
3.11 Information Diffusion Security Strengthening Using a Blockchain and Theory of Trusted Zones in Smart Medicine
3.12 Hyperledger Fabric Network Architecture with Introduction of Different Types of the Smart Contracts
3.13 Key Agreement Protocol for IoMT Ecosystem Based on Blockchain
3.14 Forensics-by-Design IoMT Authorization Using Blockchain and Smart Contracts
3.15 Blockchain for Medical Insurance
3.16 Summary
4 Concluding Remarks
References
Part IV Blockchains and Currency
Post-Quantum Digital Signatures for Bitcoin
1 Introduction
2 Related Work
2.1 Lattice-Based
2.2 Hash-Based
2.3 Multivariate-Based
3 Bitcoin Security Requirements
3.1 Digital Signature Algorithm
3.2 Hash Function
4 Post-Quantum Digital Signatures
4.1 NIST PQC Digital Signature Finalists
5 PQC Digital Signatures Performance
6 Implementation Challenges
6.1 Running Time Requirement
6.2 Space Requirement
6.3 Public Key Recovery
7 Conclusions
References
Cyber Laundering: Money Laundering from Fiat Money to Cryptocurrency
1 Introduction
2 Money Laundering
2.1 Roles and Participants
2.2 Phases and Common Techniques
2.2.1 Placement
2.2.2 Layering
2.2.3 Integration
3 Cyber Laundering
3.1 Cyber Laundering Methods
3.1.1 Mixing/Tumbling Services
3.1.2 Cards
3.1.3 Online Auctions
3.1.4 Online Services
3.1.5 Online Gambling
3.1.6 Virtual Money Laundering
3.1.7 Mobile Payment Services
3.1.8 Digital Precious Metals
3.1.9 Ransomware Campaigns
4 Traditional vs. Cyber Money Laundering
4.1 Placement
4.2 Layering
4.3 Integration
5 Investigating, Regulating, and Prosecuting Cyber Laundering
5.1 Money Laundering Legislation and Regulations
5.2 Cyber Laundering Legislation and Regulations
5.3 Nontechnical Regimes Against Cyber Laundering
5.3.1 Know Your Customer and Customer Due Diligence
5.3.2 Reducing Anonymity of Exchanges
5.3.3 Tracking Activities of Registered Exchanges
5.3.4 Regulating Cryptocurrencies
5.4 Technical Regimes Against Cyber Laundering
5.4.1 Tracking IP Addresses
5.4.2 Tracking the Blockchain
6 Conclusion and Future Work
References
Part V Blockchains in Education, Governance, Supply Chain, and Security
A Blockchain-Based Fair and Transparent Homework Grading System for Online Education
1 Introduction
2 Related Work
2.1 Blockchain
2.2 Blockchain in Educations
2.3 The Ethereum
3 Preliminary and Basic Definitions
3.1 Computational Power
3.2 Regulations and Accounts
4 The Proposed System
4.1 Basic Member Interaction Models
4.2 The Role of Teaching Assistant
4.3 Collective Grading
4.4 Authentication
5 Smart Contract
5.1 Contract for Grading by Mutual Exchanging
5.2 Contract for Autonomous Correction and Grading
5.3 Contract for Supporting Collective Correction
6 Experimental Results
6.1 System Implementation
6.2 Randomness of the Chaotic Random Number
6.3 Comparison with Related Work
7 Discussion and Conclusion
Appendix
A.1. Pseudocodes of the “Grading by Exchanging” Smart Contract
A.2. Pseudocodes of the “Auto-correction” Smart Contract
A.3. Pseudocodes of the “Collective Correction” Smart Contract
References
Improving Supply Chain Management Performance with Blockchain Technology
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Overview of Blockchain Technology
3.1 Functioning of Blockchain Technology
3.2 When Does Blockchain Make Sense?
4 Application of Blockchain Technology in Supply Chain Management
5 Benefits and Challenges in Applying Blockchain Technology in the Supply Chain
5.1 Benefits
5.2 Challenges
6 Conclusion
References
Using Blockchain to Improve Corporate Governance
1 Introduction
2 The Applications of Blockchain Technology in Businesses
2.1 Digital Payments
2.2 Banking
2.3 Supply Chain
2.4 Insurance
2.5 E-Government
3 Defining the Background of Corporate Governance
3.1 Corporate Governance Definitions
3.2 Universal Models of Corporate Governance
3.3 Corporate Governance for Public Sector
4 The Relationship Between Blockchain Technology and Corporate Governance
4.1 Theoretical Basis
4.2 Potential Uses of Blockchain Technology by Financial Sector for Better Governance
4.2.1 Primary Market Activities
4.2.2 Means of Payment
4.2.3 Automation of Procedures
4.2.4 The Impact of Blockchain on the Banking Sector
5 Empirical Literature Review
5.1 Blockchain Technology
5.2 Blockchain and Corporate Governance
6 Conclusion
References
Blockchain Security as “People Security”: Applying Sociotechnical Security to Blockchain Technology
1 Introduction
1.1 Structure of the Chapter
1.2 Methodology
1.3 Key Contributions
2 Blockchains as a Sociotechnical Construct
3 Different Types of Blockchains
3.1 Public Blockchains
3.2 Private Blockchains
3.3 Consortium Blockchains
4 Security in Different Types of Blockchains: Surfacing Assumptions
5 Applying Sociotechnical Security to Blockchains
6 People Security and Public Blockchains
6.1 Decentralized Autonomous Organizations
7 Applying a Sociotechnical Security Analysis to Private Blockchain Networks
7.1 Humanitarian Case Study: Blockchain-Based Cash Voucher Assistance
7.2 Government Case Study: Central Bank Digital Currencies
7.3 Corporate Case Study: Private Currency Platforms
8 Observations and Findings
8.1 Trust, But Verify: Applications and Limitations of the “People Security” Model
8.2 In Code We Trust? The Limitations of Security in Blockchains
8.3 Blockchain Evolution and Security Concerns: Looking Ahead
9 Conclusion and Further Directions
References
Index