Principles and Practice of Bioanalysis1

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A useful guide which provides current information and guidance on the methods, techniques and strategies used in developing and running ultra-trace analyses for drugs, metabolites and other substances.

Author(s): Richard F. Venn
Edition: 1
Publisher: CRC Press
Year: 2001

Language: English
Pages: 385

Book Cover......Page 1
Half-Title......Page 3
Title......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Contributors......Page 20
Preface......Page 21
1.1.3 Enrichment of drugs and metabolites......Page 23
1.2.1 Energy changes on solution......Page 24
Ionic bonds and ‘salting-out’......Page 25
Hydrogen bonds......Page 27
Van der Waals forces......Page 28
1.2.3 Water miscibility and water immiscibility......Page 30
1.3.1 Extraction efficiency......Page 31
1.4.1 Ionisation, pH and pK......Page 32
1.4.2 Titration curves......Page 34
1.4.3 Henderson-Hasselbalch equation......Page 35
1.4.4 Buffers......Page 37
1.4.5 Distribution coefficient......Page 38
1.5.1 Choice of solvent......Page 39
1.5.2 Mixed solvents......Page 41
1.5.5 Artefacts arising during the extraction of drugs and metabolites......Page 42
1.5.6 Modification and derivatisation of drugs and metabolites......Page 45
1.6 The ‘first law of drug metabolism’......Page 47
1.7 Bibliography......Page 48
2.1 Introduction......Page 49
2.3.1 Solvation......Page 51
2.3.2 Non-polar......Page 52
2.3.4 Ion exchange......Page 53
2.3.5 Covalent......Page 54
2.3.6 Mixed-mode interactions......Page 55
2.3.7 Polymeric sorbents......Page 56
2.4.3 Solid samples......Page 57
2.5 Developing SPE methods......Page 58
2.7 Disc cartridges......Page 59
2.7.2 Disadvantages......Page 60
2.9 Direct injection of plasma......Page 61
2.11 Conclusions and future perspectives......Page 62
2.12 Bibliography......Page 63
3.2 Applications......Page 65
3.3.1 Column......Page 66
3.3.2 Plumbing......Page 68
3.3.3 Pumps......Page 69
3.3.4 Injectors......Page 70
3.4.1 Basic principles......Page 71
3.4.3 Distribution......Page 72
3.4.4 Theoretical plates......Page 73
3.5.1 Retention......Page 74
3.5.2 Resolution......Page 75
Skewed peaks......Page 78
Band broadening......Page 80
3.5.4 Effect of temperature......Page 81
3.5.5 Effect of flow rate and linear velocity......Page 82
3.5.6 Effect of sample volume......Page 83
3.6.1 Normal phase......Page 84
3.6.2 Reverse phase......Page 85
3.6.3 Gradient reverse phase......Page 88
3.6.4 Ion suppression and ion pairing......Page 89
3.6.6 Others......Page 92
3.7 Column care......Page 93
3.8 Bibliography......Page 94
4.2 System parameters......Page 95
4.3 Reverse-phase HPLC......Page 96
4.4 Ion-pair HPLC......Page 101
4.5 Ion-exchange HPLC......Page 105
4.6 Normal-phase HPLC......Page 107
4.7.1 Chiral columns......Page 110
4.7.2 Diastereoisomers......Page 113
4.7.4 Chiral summary......Page 115
4.8 Column switching in HPLC......Page 116
4.9 Gradient reverse-phase HPLC......Page 119
4.10 Column conditions......Page 120
4.13 Glossary......Page 122
References......Page 123
5.1 Introduction......Page 125
5.2.1 Solute-property detectors......Page 126
5.3 Selectivity in detectors......Page 127
5.4.1 Linearity......Page 128
5.4.2 Time constant......Page 129
Principle of operation......Page 130
Design......Page 131
Advantages of UV-visible detectors......Page 133
Principles......Page 134
Design and use......Page 135
Advantages......Page 137
Other considerations......Page 138
Dynamic detectors......Page 139
5.5.4 Multifunctional detectors......Page 140
Principles......Page 141
Optical activity......Page 142
Nitrogen detectors......Page 143
5.6.2 Pre-column derivatisation......Page 144
5.7 Selectivity......Page 145
5.8.3 Baseline instability......Page 146
5.10 Bibliography......Page 147
6.1 Why gas chromatography works......Page 149
6.2 Factors that affect the chromatography......Page 150
6.3.1 Stationary phase......Page 151
6.3.3 Column length......Page 153
6.3.5 Film thickness......Page 154
6.3.8 Some rules of thumb......Page 155
6.4 GC hardware......Page 156
6.4.2 Sample introduction......Page 157
Splitless injection......Page 158
Direct on-column injection......Page 159
Thermionic detector (TID)......Page 162
Electron capture detector......Page 163
6.5 Derivatisation for GC......Page 164
6.7 Bibliography......Page 165
7.1 Introduction......Page 166
7.2.1 Preparative TLC......Page 167
7.2.2 Metabolic profiling......Page 168
Conjugates are relatively polar on TLC.......Page 172
7.4 Detection of compounds on TLC plates......Page 175
7.5 Bibliography......Page 176
8.2 How capillary electrophoresis works......Page 177
8.3.2 Free-solution capillary electrophoresis......Page 179
Choice of buffer and ionic strength......Page 180
8.3.3 Micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography......Page 181
8.3.4 Electrochromatography (electrically driven HPLC)......Page 182
Gravimetric (syphonic)......Page 183
Differential pressure......Page 184
Electrochemical detection......Page 185
8.5 Use in bioanalysis......Page 186
8.6 Bibliography......Page 187
9.2 Definitions......Page 188
9.3.1 Mass action......Page 189
9.3.2 Competitive assays......Page 190
9.3.3 Non-competitive assays......Page 191
9.4.2 Label......Page 192
Enzymes......Page 193
Dextran-coated charcoal......Page 194
Immobilisation......Page 195
Typical immunisation protocol......Page 196
Radioimmunoassays......Page 197
DELFIA......Page 198
9.6.2 Fitting......Page 199
9.6.3 Precision profile......Page 200
9.7.4 Ease......Page 201
9.8.3 Matrix effects......Page 202
9.10 Immunoassay strategy......Page 203
9.12 Affinity chromatography......Page 205
Soft gel supports......Page 207
Rigid supports......Page 208
Biospecific desorption......Page 209
9.13.1 Phage libraries for antibodies......Page 210
9.14 Summary......Page 211
9.15 Bibliography......Page 212
10.1 Introduction......Page 214
10.2.1 SPE......Page 215
10.2.4 Liquid-handling procedures......Page 216
10.3 Simple automation......Page 217
10.4 Column switching......Page 218
10.6 Benchtop instruments—sequential sample processing......Page 220
10.6.2 Gilson ASPEC XL™......Page 221
10.6.3 Hamilton MicroLab™......Page 222
10.7.3 Multiple probe liquid-handling robots......Page 223
10.9 Full robotic systems......Page 225
10.11 Example methods......Page 226
10.13 Bibliography......Page 227
11.2.1 Septum inlet......Page 230
11.2.3 GC inlets......Page 231
11.2.4 LC inlets......Page 232
Particle-beam inlet......Page 233
Other inlets......Page 234
11.3.1 Introduction......Page 235
11.3.2 Electron impact ionisation......Page 236
11.3.3 Chemical ionisation......Page 237
11.3.4 Atmospheric-pressure chemical ionisation......Page 238
11.3.5 Fast atom bombardment......Page 239
Ion evaporation......Page 240
11.3.7 Electrospray......Page 242
11.3.8 Other desorption techniques......Page 244
11.4.1 Single-focusing magnetic instruments......Page 245
11.4.3 Quadrupole analysers......Page 247
11.4.4 Time of flight (ToF) analysers......Page 249
11.4.5 Ion-trap mass analysers......Page 250
11.5 Detectors......Page 251
11.5.2 Negative-ion detection......Page 252
11.6.2 Data acquisition/preliminary data processing......Page 253
Total-ion current (TIC) chromatogram......Page 254
Mass chromatography......Page 255
11.7 Bibliography......Page 257
12.1.1 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)......Page 259
Research/discovery......Page 260
12.2 Internal standardisation......Page 261
12.3.2 Mass analysis......Page 262
12.3.3 Calculation of the mass of the selected ion......Page 263
12.4 Developing a quantitative method......Page 264
12.5 Analysis of prostanoids by GC-MS......Page 265
12.6 An example of thermospray LC-MS......Page 268
12.7 Examples of API LC-MS......Page 269
12.9 Bibliography......Page 272
13.2 Introduction......Page 274
13.3.2 Instrumentation......Page 275
Product ion mass spectrum......Page 277
Precursor ion mass spectrum......Page 281
Neutral loss mass spectrum......Page 282
13.4 Isotopically labelled compounds in metabolite identification......Page 284
13.5.1 Introduction......Page 285
Direct-probe analysis......Page 287
Particle-beam liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)......Page 288
13.5.3 Fast atom bombardment......Page 289
13.5.4 Thermospray liquid chromatography-mass sectrometry (TSP LC-MS)......Page 290
13.5.5 Electrospray liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry......Page 292
13.5.6 Ion-trap mass spectrometry coupled to external atmospheric-pressure ionisation sources......Page 293
13.5.7 Summary......Page 294
13.6 Bibliography......Page 295
14.2 Basic theory of the NMR phenomenon......Page 297
14.3.1 Chemical shift......Page 299
14.3.2 Spin-spin coupling......Page 300
14.4.1 Types of spectrometer......Page 305
14.4.2 Sample preparation......Page 306
14.5.2 Solid-phase extraction sample preparation......Page 307
14.5.4 Fluorinated compounds......Page 310
14.6 Plasma metabolites......Page 312
14.9.1 Why use pulse NMR?......Page 313
Spectral editing......Page 315
Homonuclear 2-dimensional correlation spectroscopy (COSY)......Page 316
14.9.5 Conclusion......Page 319
14.10 Bibliography......Page 320
15.1.1 Choice of label......Page 321
15.2 Stage 2: animal experiments......Page 322
15.3 Stage 3: metabolite isolation and characterisation......Page 323
15.3.1 Enrichment......Page 324
15.3.2 Analysis......Page 326
15.3.3 Separation......Page 327
Changing the mobile phase......Page 329
Changing the stationary phase......Page 331
Changing the pH......Page 333
15.3.5 Characterisation......Page 334
15.4 Stage 4: identification of metabolites......Page 340
15.4.1 Mass spectrometry......Page 342
15.4.2 NMR......Page 345
15.4.3 Degradation, derivatisation and comparison with authentic material......Page 347
15.5.3 Quantitative measurement of metabolic profiles......Page 350
15.6 In vitro studies......Page 353
15.6.1 Isolation of metabolites from in vitro incubations......Page 354
15.6.2 Cross-species comparisons of metabolic profiles......Page 356
15.7 Identification of plasma metabolites......Page 357
15.8 Good laboratory practice......Page 359
15.9 Conclusions......Page 360
16.1 Introduction......Page 361
16.2 Preliminary requirements......Page 362
16.3 Detection......Page 364
16.4 Separation......Page 366
16.5 Sample preparation......Page 367
16.7 Extraction sequence......Page 368
16.8 Liquid/liquid extraction......Page 370
16.9.2 Standardisation......Page 372
16.9.4 Calibration check......Page 373
16.10 Validation......Page 374
Stability of extracts......Page 375
16.12 Conclusions......Page 376
Index......Page 378