Contents summary......Page 7
Introduction......Page 8
Contents overview......Page 13
Language terminology......Page 20
Phonetic alphabet......Page 30
1 Verbs......Page 32
1 irregular verbs......Page 34
2 active verb tenses......Page 38
3 progressive structures......Page 40
4 non-progressive verbs......Page 41
6 perfect structures......Page 43
7 subjects, objects and complements......Page 44
8 verbs with two objects......Page 45
9 verbs with both active and passive meanings......Page 47
10 verb + object + complement: You make me nervous.......Page 48
11 linking verbs: be, seem, look, etc......Page 49
12 two-part verbs: phrasal verbs......Page 50
13 two-part verbs: prepositional verbs......Page 51
15 verb + verb: auxiliary verbs......Page 52
16 verb + verb: other structures......Page 53
2 Be, have and do......Page 55
19 be with auxiliary do......Page 56
20 there is......Page 57
22 have: auxiliary verb......Page 59
23 have: actions......Page 60
24 have (got): possession, relationships and other states......Page 61
25 be and have......Page 62
26 do: introduction......Page 63
27 do: auxiliary verb......Page 64
29 do so/it/that......Page 65
3 Present Tenses......Page 67
31 simple present: use......Page 68
32 present progressive......Page 70
33 stories, commentaries and instructions......Page 71
34 present tenses: advanced points......Page 72
4 Talking about the Future......Page 74
35 going to......Page 76
36 present progressive for future......Page 77
37 simple present for future......Page 78
38 will......Page 79
39 will, going to and present progressive: advanced points......Page 80
40 future perfect......Page 82
41 future progressive......Page 83
42 be to + infinitive: I am to ..., you are to ..., etc......Page 84
43 future in the past......Page 85
5 Past and Perfect Tenses......Page 86
44 simple past......Page 88
45 past progressive......Page 90
46 past verb form with present or future meaning......Page 92
47 present perfect: basic information......Page 93
48 present perfect or past?......Page 95
49 present perfect or past: advanced points......Page 97
50 present perfect progressive......Page 100
51 present perfect simple or progressive?......Page 102
53 past perfect: basic information......Page 103
54 past perfect: advanced points......Page 105
55 past perfect progressive......Page 106
56 This is the first/last ..., etc......Page 107
6 Passives......Page 108
57 passive structures and verb forms......Page 110
58 by + agent......Page 111
61 verbs with two objects in the passive......Page 112
62 verbs with prepositions in the passive......Page 113
63 It was thought that .........Page 114
64 He is believed to be .........Page 115
66 My suitcase is packed.......Page 116
67 When do we use passive structures?......Page 117
7 Modal Auxiliary Verbs......Page 118
68 modals: grammar, pronunciation and contractions......Page 120
69 deduction (deciding that something is certain): must, can't, etc......Page 121
71 chances: may, might and could......Page 123
72 may and might: some special uses......Page 125
73 strong obligation: must, will......Page 126
75 have (got) to and must......Page 128
76 weaker obligation: should and ought to......Page 129
77 weaker obligation: had better......Page 130
79 willingness: will, can......Page 131
80 instructions and requests: will, would, can, could, might, shall......Page 132
81 permission: can, could, may, might, be allowed to......Page 133
82 ability: can and could......Page 135
83 ability: advanced points......Page 137
85 be able to......Page 138
86 typical behaviour: can, could, may, might, will, would......Page 139
87 typical behaviour: used to + infinitive......Page 140
8 Infinitives, -ing forms and Past Participles......Page 142
89 infinitives: forms......Page 144
90 use of perfect infinitives: glad to have left......Page 145
91 infinitives without to: I saw you come in.......Page 146
92 infinitive as subject or complement......Page 147
93 -ing forms: introduction......Page 148
94 -ing form as subject, object or complement......Page 149
95 infinitive or -ing form?......Page 150
96 participles: -ing and -ed forms used like adjectives......Page 151
9 Infinitives, -ing forms and Past Participles after Nouns, Verbs, etc......Page 154
98 verb + object + infinitive: I want you to listen.......Page 156
99 try and ..., go and ..., etc......Page 157
100 -ing forms after verbs: I enjoy travelling.......Page 158
101 infinitives after adjectives: pleased to see you......Page 159
102 infinitives after nouns and pronouns: my decision to leave......Page 160
103 -ing forms after nouns and adjectives: tired of listening......Page 162
104 -ing forms after prepositions: without breaking eggs......Page 163
105 infinitives or -ing forms: both possible with different uses......Page 164
106 active and passive infinitive with similar meaning......Page 168
108 causative and similar structures with get......Page 169
109 causative and similar structures with have......Page 170
110 hear, see, etc + object + verb form......Page 171
10 Infinitives, -ing forms and Past Participles: Other Uses......Page 173
112 infinitive of purpose: I sat down to rest.......Page 174
113 for ... to .........Page 175
115 participle clauses......Page 178
11 Nouns and Noun Phrases; Agreement......Page 182
116 spelling of plurals......Page 184
117 irregular and special plurals......Page 185
118 pronunciation of plurals......Page 188
119 countable and uncountable nouns: basic information......Page 189
120 countable and uncountable nouns: advanced points......Page 192
121 piece- and group-words: a blade of grass; a bunch of flowers......Page 194
123 possessives: noun + 's (forms)......Page 195
124 nouns in combination: my father's house......Page 196
125 nouns in combination: milk chocolate......Page 198
126 classifying expressions: noun + noun or preposition structure?......Page 201
127 classifying expressions with 's: a child's toy; cow's milk......Page 202
128 singular expressions with plural verbs......Page 203
129 plural expressions with singular verbs......Page 204
130 mixed singular and plural: other structures......Page 205
131 distributive plural: Tell them to bring raincoats.......Page 208
132 turning verbs into nouns: a cough, a taste......Page 209
12 Determiners......Page 210
134 articles: basic information (A)......Page 212
135 articles: basic information (B)......Page 213
136 more about the......Page 214
137 more about a/an......Page 216
138 no article with plural and uncountable nouns......Page 218
139 the difference between some/any and no article......Page 219
140 talking in general......Page 220
141 the: difficult cases......Page 221
142 special rules and exceptions......Page 222
143 possessive determiners: my, your, etc......Page 227
144 this and that......Page 228
145 this/that and it: things that have just been mentioned......Page 230
13 Determiners: Quantifiers......Page 232
147 all (of) with noun phrases and pronouns......Page 234
148 all with the verb: We can all swim.......Page 235
150 all and whole......Page 236
151 every (one)......Page 237
153 each......Page 239
154 each and every: the difference......Page 240
155 both......Page 241
156 either......Page 242
158 some......Page 243
159 any......Page 245
161 some and any: the main differences......Page 247
163 no, none and not a/any......Page 248
164 no one and none......Page 249
165 much and many......Page 250
166 more......Page 251
168 (a) little and (a) few......Page 252
170 least and fewest......Page 254
171 enough......Page 255
172 quantifying expressions: a lot, lots, a great deal, the majority, etc......Page 256
14 Pronouns......Page 258
173 personal pronouns: basic information......Page 260
174 personal pronouns: advanced points......Page 262
175 singular they......Page 264
177 a friend of mine, etc......Page 265
178 reflexive pronouns: myself, etc......Page 266
179 reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another......Page 267
180 somebody, someone, anybody, anyone, etc......Page 268
181 one, you and they: used for people in general......Page 270
182 one (substitute word): a big one......Page 271
15 Adjectives......Page 273
183 adjectives: normal position......Page 274
184 order of adjectives......Page 275
185 adjectives with and......Page 276
186 adjectives after nouns and pronouns......Page 277
187 adjectives: position after as, how, so, too......Page 278
188 adjectives without nouns......Page 279
190 measurements: 'marked' and 'unmarked' forms......Page 280
192 What can follow an adjective?......Page 281
16 Adverbs and Adverbials......Page 282
193 adverbs of manner and adjectives......Page 284
194 adverbs or adjectives: confusing cases......Page 285
195 adverb particles: up, down, back, away, etc......Page 288
196 position of adverbials: introduction......Page 289
197 connecting and comment adverbials......Page 290
198 indefinite frequency, certainty and completeness......Page 291
200 mid-position: details......Page 292
201 manner, place and time......Page 294
202 adverbials modifying adverbials: terribly sorry; right past me......Page 295
17 Comparison......Page 296
203 as ... as; as much/many as......Page 298
204 comparative and superlative adjectives......Page 300
206 using comparatives and superlatives......Page 302
207 much older, by far the oldest, etc......Page 304
208 comparison: advanced points......Page 305
18 Prepositions......Page 308
209 prepositions at the ends of clauses......Page 310
210 prepositions before conjunctions......Page 312
212 prepositions before particular words and expressions......Page 313
213 prepositions after particular words and expressions......Page 314
214 expressions without prepositions......Page 319
19 Basic Clause Types......Page 322
215 sentence structure: basic word order......Page 324
216 questions: basic rules......Page 325
217 negative structures: basic rules......Page 327
218 negative questions......Page 328
219 negative structures with think, hope, seem, etc......Page 330
220 multiple negatives: I couldn't see nobody.......Page 331
221 ambiguous negatives......Page 332
222 non-affirmative words: anybody, ever, yet, etc......Page 333
223 exclamations......Page 334
224 imperatives......Page 335
225 let introducing imperatives......Page 336
20 Conjunctions, Sentences and Clauses......Page 338
226 putting things together: and, but, or......Page 340
228 emphatic coordination: both ... and; (n)either ... (n)or; not only......Page 341
229 subordinate clauses: some general points......Page 343
231 tense simplification in subordinate clauses......Page 345
232 subjunctive: that she go, that they be, if I were, etc......Page 347
21 Relative Clauses......Page 349
233 relatives: basic information......Page 350
234 identifying and non-identifying clauses: the tall man who ...; Mr Rogers, who .........Page 351
235 whose......Page 353
237 relatives: advanced points......Page 354
22 If......Page 360
239 special structures with past tenses and would......Page 362
240 if I were you......Page 363
242 if only......Page 364
243 if ... will......Page 365
244 other points......Page 366
245 other structures found in spoken English......Page 368
247 unless......Page 369
248 in case and if......Page 370
23 Other Adverbial Clauses......Page 371
250 before: conjunction......Page 372
251 as, when and while: simultaneous events......Page 373
252 whoever, whatever, etc......Page 375
253 no matter who, etc......Page 377
256 than- and as-clauses: leaving out subjects, etc......Page 378
24 Noun Clauses, Direct and Indirect Speech......Page 380
258 indirect speech: introduction......Page 382
259 indirect speech: tenses......Page 383
260 indirect speech: questions and answers......Page 385
261 whether and if......Page 386
262 indirect speech: infinitives......Page 387
263 indirect speech: advanced points......Page 388
264 that-clauses......Page 390
265 leaving out that......Page 393
266 interrogative (question-word) clauses......Page 394
25 Information Structure......Page 395
267 information structure: normal order and variations......Page 396
268 preparatory it: subject......Page 398
269 preparatory it: object......Page 399
270 inversion: auxiliary verb before subject......Page 400
271 inversion: full verb before subject......Page 401
272 fronting: This question we have already discussed.......Page 402
273 cleft sentences: It was my secretary who .........Page 403
274 cleft sentences: What I need is a rest.......Page 404
275 ellipsis (leaving words out): introduction......Page 406
276 ellipsis with and, but and or......Page 408
277 ellipsis at the beginning of a sentence......Page 409
278 ellipsis in noun phrases......Page 410
279 ellipsis after auxiliary verbs......Page 411
280 ellipsis: infinitives......Page 412
26 Written Texts......Page 414
281 formality......Page 416
282 pronouns and other proforms......Page 417
283 linking with conjunctions and adverbials......Page 418
284 discourse markers in writing......Page 420
285 reading complicated structures......Page 424
286 paragraphs......Page 428
287 repetition......Page 429
288 academic writing......Page 431
289 correspondence: letters......Page 433
290 correspondence: emails, text messages, etc......Page 435
291 abbreviated styles......Page 437
292 headlines......Page 439
293 punctuation: full stop, question mark and exclamation mark......Page 449
294 punctuation: colon......Page 450
296 punctuation: comma......Page 451
298 punctuation: quotation marks......Page 454
27 Speech and Spoken Exchanges......Page 455
299 spoken sentence structure......Page 456
300 avoiding repetition: Wonderful, isn't it?......Page 457
301 discourse markers in speech......Page 458
303 rhetorical questions: Who cares?......Page 462
304 echo questions: She's invited how many?......Page 463
305 question tags: basic information......Page 464
306 question tags: advanced points......Page 465
307 reply questions: Was it? Did you, dear?......Page 467
309 so am I, neither do they, etc......Page 468
310 politeness: using questions......Page 469
311 politeness: distancing verb forms......Page 470
313 pronunciation: stress and rhythm......Page 472
314 pronunciation: intonation......Page 475
315 pronunciation: weak and strong forms......Page 477
28 Varieties of English......Page 480
316 standard English and dialects......Page 482
317 correctness......Page 484
318 changes in English......Page 486
319 American and British English......Page 488
320 other varieties of English......Page 493
29 Vocabulary Areas......Page 499
321 nationalities, countries and regions......Page 500
322 numbers......Page 502
324 dates......Page 508
325 telling the time......Page 509
326 names and titles: Daniel; Mr Lewis......Page 510
327 names: Florence, Homer, etc......Page 512
328 gender (references to males and females)......Page 513
329 'social' language......Page 514
330 meals......Page 518
331 telephoning......Page 519
332 idioms, collocations and formulaic expressions......Page 520
333 formal and informal vocabulary......Page 522
334 slang......Page 523
335 discriminatory and offensive language......Page 524
30 Word Formation and Spelling......Page 526
336 abbreviations......Page 528
337 contractions: I'll, don't, etc......Page 531
338 prefixes and suffixes......Page 534
339 -ic and -ical......Page 540
341 capital letters......Page 541
342 hyphens......Page 542
343 -ise and -ize......Page 543
345 -ly......Page 544
347 doubling final consonants......Page 545
349 ch and tch, k and ck......Page 547
351 spelling and pronunciation......Page 548
31 Word Problems from A to Z......Page 551
354 above and over......Page 552
357 across, over and through......Page 553
358 actual(ly)......Page 554
360 after: adverb......Page 555
362 ago......Page 556
365 allow, permit and let......Page 557
366 almost and nearly; practically......Page 558
368 along......Page 559
370 alternate(ly) and alternative(ly)......Page 560
371 although, though, but and however: contrast......Page 561
374 appear......Page 562
375 arise and rise......Page 563
377 as, because, since and for......Page 564
378 as if and as though; like......Page 565
381 as usual......Page 566
383 ask......Page 567
384 at, on and in: place......Page 568
385 at/in and to......Page 570
386 at, on and in: time......Page 571
387 at all......Page 572
389 (a)wake and (a)waken......Page 573
390 back (adverb) and again......Page 574
391 bath and bathe......Page 575
393 because......Page 576
394 become, get, go, grow, etc: changes......Page 577
396 before: adverb......Page 579
398 begin and start......Page 580
399 below, under, underneath and beneath......Page 581
401 bet......Page 582
403 between and among......Page 583
404 big, large and great......Page 584
407 born and borne......Page 585
409 bring and take......Page 586
411 Britain, the United Kingdom, the British Isles and England......Page 587
413 but meaning 'except'......Page 588
414 by: time......Page 589
417 call......Page 590
419 care: take care (of), care (about) and care for......Page 591
422 close and shut......Page 592
424 come and go......Page 593
426 complement and compliment (noun and verb)......Page 594
429 control......Page 595
431 dare......Page 596
433 different......Page 597
435 do: general-purpose verb; do and make......Page 598
437 dress......Page 599
439 due to and owing to......Page 600
442 east and eastern, north and northern, etc......Page 601
444 efficient and effective......Page 602
447 else......Page 603
448 end and finish: verbs......Page 604
450 enough......Page 605
451 especial(ly) and special(ly)......Page 606
452 even......Page 607
454 ever......Page 608
456 except and except for......Page 609
457 expect, hope, wait and look forward......Page 610
458 experiment and experience......Page 612
460 fairly, quite, rather and pretty: adverbs of degree......Page 613
462 farther and further......Page 614
463 feel......Page 615
465 finally, at last, in the end and at the end......Page 616
466 finished......Page 617
468 for: purpose and cause......Page 618
469 for, since, in and from: time......Page 619
471 fun and funny......Page 620
472 get: basic structures and meanings......Page 621
473 get and go: movement......Page 622
475 go/come for a .........Page 623
477 gone with be......Page 624
479 happen to .........Page 625
481 hear and listen (to)......Page 626
484 here and there......Page 627
486 hire, rent and let......Page 628
489 home......Page 629
492 how......Page 630
494 ill and sick......Page 632
496 in and into, on and onto: prepositions......Page 633
497 indifferent......Page 634
500 instead and instead of......Page 635
502 it's time......Page 636
503 just......Page 637
504 know......Page 638
505 last, the last, the latest......Page 639
506 later and in......Page 640
508 learn......Page 641
512 let......Page 642
514 like: verb......Page 643
515 like and as: similarity, function......Page 645
516 likely......Page 646
517 long and (for) a long time......Page 647
518 look......Page 648
520 loudly and aloud......Page 649
523 marry and divorce......Page 650
526 mean......Page 651
527 means......Page 652
529 miss......Page 653
530 name......Page 654
532 need......Page 655
533 next and the next; nearest......Page 657
535 no more, not any more, no longer, not any longer......Page 658
538 now (that)......Page 659
541 often......Page 660
544 one of .........Page 661
546 open......Page 662
549 opposite, facing and in front of......Page 663
550 other(s) and another......Page 664
551 out of......Page 665
553 part......Page 666
556 please and thank you......Page 667
557 point of view......Page 668
560 prefer......Page 669
563 principal and principle......Page 670
564 quite......Page 671
566 rather: preference......Page 672
568 remind and remember......Page 674
571 (the) same......Page 675
572 say and tell......Page 676
574 see......Page 677
575 see, look (at) and watch......Page 678
576 seem......Page 679
579 since: tenses......Page 681
580 small and little......Page 682
582 so: adverb meaning 'like this/that'......Page 683
584 so (degree adverb): so tired, so fast......Page 684
585 so and not with hope, believe, etc......Page 685
586 so with say and tell......Page 686
588 so that and in order that......Page 687
590 some time, sometime and sometimes......Page 688
592 sort of, kind of and type of......Page 689
594 speak and talk......Page 690
595 still, yet and already: time......Page 691
596 such......Page 693
597 such and so......Page 694
598 suggest......Page 695
600 surely......Page 696
602 take: time......Page 697
604 thankful and grateful......Page 698
606 think......Page 699
607 through: time......Page 700
608 time......Page 701
610 too......Page 702
612 travel, journey, trip and voyage......Page 704
613 until......Page 705
614 up, down......Page 706
616 very and very much......Page 707
617 wait......Page 708
619 -ward(s)......Page 709
620 way......Page 710
622 well......Page 711
625 which, what and who: question words......Page 712
626 who and whom......Page 713
628 whose: question word......Page 714
630 why and why not......Page 715
632 wish......Page 716
633 with......Page 718
634 worth......Page 719
635 yes and no......Page 720
Index......Page 722
