Polymers in Energy Conversion and Storage

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1: History and Progress of Polymers for Energy Applications
1.1 Introduction: Historical Perspective of Polymers in the Energy Field
1.2 Polymer Materials for Energy Storage Applications
1.3 Polymer Materials for Energy Conversion Applications
1.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Polymer Electrolytes for Supercapacitor Applications
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Effect of the Electrolyte on Supercapacitor Performance
2.1.2 Essential Electrochemical Performance Parameters Controlled by the Electrolytes
2.1.3 Characteristics of an Ideal Electrolyte
2.2 Different Classes of Electrolytes for Supercapacitors
2.3 Different Solid and Quasi-Solid Types of Electrolytes used in Supercapacitor Technology
2.3.1 Solid Polymer Electrolytes
2.3.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes
2.3.2.1 Hydrogel Polymer Electrolytes
2.3.2.1.1 Synthesized Polymer Hydrogel Electrolytes
2.3.2.1.2 Natural Biopolymer-Based Hydrogel Electrolytes
2.3.2.2 Polymer Organogel Electrolytes
2.3.2.3 Polymer Ionogel Electrolytes
2.3.2.4 Proton-Conducting Gel Polymer Electrolytes
2.3.3 Polyelectrolytes
2.4 The Ionic Conduction Mechanism in Various Polymer Electrolytes
2.4.1 Ionic Conduction in Solid (Solvent-Free) Polymer Electrolytes
2.4.2 Ion Conduction in Gel Polymer Electrolytes
2.5 Polymer-Based Multifunctional Flexible Supercapacitors
2.5.1 Polymer-Based Stretchable or Compressible Supercapacitors
2.5.2 Polymer-Based Self-Healable Supercapacitors
2.5.3 Polymer-Electrolyte-Based Shape Memory Supercapacitors
2.5.4 Polymer Electrolyte-Based Electrochromic Supercapacitors
2.5.5 Polymer Electrolyte Based Self-Charging Supercapacitors
2.6 Integrated Sensing Devices Powered by Polymer Electrolyte-Based Supercapacitors
2.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
Declaration of Competing Interest
References
Chapter 3: Polyaniline-Based Ternary Composites for Energy Accumulation in Electrochemical Capacitors
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Composite Materials for Supercapacitors
3.3 Conducting Organic Polymer (COP) Based Ternary Composites for Supercapacitors
3.3.1 Polyaniline
3.3.2 Carbon - Based Materials
3.3.3 Metal Oxides
3.3.4 Polyaniline - Based Ternary Composites
3.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Self-Healing Gel Electrolytes for Flexible Supercapacitors
4.1 Introduction
4.2 An Overview of Self-Healing Gel Electrolytes
4.3 Synthesis of Self-Healing Gels Based on Non-Covalent Interactions
4.4 Synthesis of Self-Healing Gels Based on Covalent Interactions
4.5 Self-Healing Ionic Gel Electrolytes
4.6 Redox-Active Self-Healing Gel Electrolytes
4.7 Redox-Active Self-Healing Electrolytes for Supercapacitors
4.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5: Polymeric Nanogenerators
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Piezoelectric Nanogenerators
5.2.1 Polyvinylidene Fluoride and Its Co-Polymers
5.2.1.1 Polyvinylidene Fluoride
5.2.1.2 Polyvinylidene Fluoride- Trifluoroethylene
5.2.1.3 Polyvinylidene Fluoride Hexafluoro- Propylene
5.2.2 Polyamide
5.2.3 Polyvinyl Chloride
5.2.4 Poly-L-Lactic Acid
5.3 Triboelectric Nanogenerators
5.3.1 Polytetrafluoroethylene
5.3.2 Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene
5.3.3 Cellulose
5.3.4 Polyvinylidene Fluoride
5.3.5 Polyamide
5.3.6 Polydimethylsiloxane
5.3.7 Polyimide
5.4 Electrostatic Nanogenerators
5.5 Electromagnetic Induction Nanogenerators
5.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Pyroelectric and Piezoelectric Polymers
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 The Concept of Piezoelectricity and the Figure of Merits
6.1.1.1 Piezoelectric Coefficients
6.1.1.1.1 Stretching
6.1.1.1.2 Poling
6.1.2 The Concept of Pyroelectricity and the Figures of Merit
6.1.3 Piezoelectric and Pyroelectric Materials
6.1.3.1 Types of Piezoelectric and Pyroelectric Materials
6.1.3.1.1 Single Crystals
6.1.3.1.2 Ceramics
6.1.3.1.3 Inorganic Films
6.1.3.1.4 Polymers
6.1.3.1.4.1 Poly(Vinylidene Fluoride) (PVDF)
6.1.3.1.4.2 Polyvinylidene Fluoride-Trifluoroethylene (P(VDF-TrFE))
6.1.3.1.4.3 Polyvinylidene Fluoride-Hexafluoropropylene (P(VDF–HFP))
6.1.3.1.4.4 Polyvinylidene Fluoride-Chlorotrifluoroethylene (P(VDF–CTFE))
6.1.3.1.4.5 Poly(Vinylidene Fluoride-Tri Fluoroethylene-Chlorotri Fluoroethylene) (P(VDF-TrFE-CTFE))
6.1.3.1.5 Polyamides (PA)
6.1.3.1.6 Polyureas
6.1.3.1.7 Biopolymers
6.1.3.2 Polymer Nanocomposites for Piezo/Pyroelectricity
6.1.3.2.1 PVDF and Its Copolymers
6.1.3.2.1.1 Ceramic Fillers
6.1.3.2.1.2 Carbon-Based Fillers
6.1.3.2.1.3 Metal-Based Fillers
6.1.3.2.1.4 Hybrid Fillers
6.1.3.2.2 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
6.1.3.2.3 Polyurethanes (PU)
6.1.3.2.3.1 Polyamides (PA)
6.1.3.2.3.2 Cellulose and Its Derivatives
6.2 Other Polymer Composite Systems
6.2.1 Piezo/PyroElectric Polymers for Energy Harvesting
6.2.1.1 Energy Harvesting: Principles and Methods
6.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Polymers and Their Composites for Solar Cell Applications
List of Abbreviations
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Polymer Composites for DSSC Applications
7.2.1 Polymer Composites for Flexible Substrates in DSSCs
7.2.2 Polymer Composites for Mesoporous TiO 2 Photoanodes in DSSCs
7.2.3 Polymer Composites as Counter-Electrodes for DSSCs
7.2.3.1 Polypyrrole (PPy)-Based CEs for DSSCs
7.2.3.2 Polyaniline-Based CEs for DSSCs
7.2.3.3 Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)-Based CEs for DSSCs
7.3 Polymer-Based Electrolytes of DSSCs
7.3.1 Thermoplastic Polymer Electrolytes
7.3.2 Thermosetting Polymer Electrolytes
7.3.3 Composite Polymer Electrolytes for DSSCs
7.4 Application of Polymers in Perovskite Solar Cells
7.4.1 Polymers for Regulating the Morphology of the Perovskite Layer
7.4.2 Polymers as Hole Transport Layers
7.4.3 Polymers as Electron Transport Layers
7.4.4 Polymers as the Interlayer
7.5 Summary and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 8: Polymers and Composites for Fuel Cell Applications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Working Principle of the Fuel Cell
8.3 Polymers in Fuel Cells
8.3.1 Electronic and Ionic Properties of Polymers
8.3.2 Biopolymers
8.3.3 Synthetic Polymers
8.4 Polymers as Electrolytes for Batteries, Supercapacitors, and Fuel Cells
8.5 Overview of Polymers in Membrane-Electrode Assemblies
8.6 Role of Polymers in Fuel Cells
8.6.1 Polymers as Ion Exchange Media
8.6.2 Polymer Composites as Ion-Exchange Media
8.6.3 Polymers and Their Composites as Electrocatalysts
8.7 Challenges in Designing Compatible Polymer-Based Membrane Electrode Assemblies
8.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 9: Solid Polymer Electrolytes for Solid State Batteries
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Polymer Solid Electrolytes for Batteries
9.2.1 Polyethylene Oxide (PEO)
9.2.2 Polyacrylonitrile
9.2.3 Polyvinylidene Difluoride
9.2.4 Polyacrylates
9.3 Solid Polymer Composite Electrolytes (SPCs)
9.3.1 Inert-Polymer Filler Electrolytes
9.3.2 Active-Polymer Filler Electrolytes
9.3.2.1 Garnet-Polymer Solid Electrolytes
9.3.2.2 NASICON-Polymer Electrolytes
9.3.2.3 Perovskite-Polymer Electrolytes
9.3.2.4 Sulfide-Polymer Electrolytes
9.4 Polymer Electrolytes for Hopped-Up Batteries
9.5 Solid Polymer Composite Electrolytes in Rechargeable Batteries
9.6 Conclusion and Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 10: Polymer Batteries
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Rechargeable Batteries
10.1.1.1 Lead-Acid Battery
10.1.1.2 Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) Battery
10.1.1.3 Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery (Ni-MH Battery)
10.1.1.4 Rechargeable Lithium Batteries (R-LBs)
10.2 Battery Components and Parameters
10.3 Electrolytes for Rechargeable Lithium Batteries
10.3.1 Liquid Electrolytes
10.3.2 Solid Electrolytes
10.3.2.1 Inorganic Solid Electrolytes
10.3.2.1.1 Crystalline or Polycrystalline Solid Electrolytes
10.3.2.1.2 Glassy Solid Electrolytes
10.3.2.2 Polymer Electrolytes (PEs)
10.3.2.2.1 Solid Polymer Electrolytes (SPEs)
10.3.2.2.2 Plasticized Polymer Electrolytes
10.3.2.2.3 Ionic Liquid-Based Gel Polymer Electrolytes (IL-GPEs)
10.4 Electrochemical Characterizations of IL-GPEs for LPBs
10.4.1 Ionic and Lithium-Ion Conductivity of IL-GPEs
10.4.2 Solid Electrolyte Interface (SEI)
10.4.3 Electrochemical Stability Window (ESW)
10.4.4 Charge–Discharge Performance of Lithium Batteries Using IL-GPEs
10.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 11: Polymer Semiconductors
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Semiconducting Polymers
11.3 Synthesis of Semiconductors Polymers
11.3.1 Building Block Selection
11.3.1.1 Acceptor Building Blocks
11.3.1.2 Donor Building Blocks
11.3.2 Backbone Halogenation
11.3.2.1 Fluorination
11.3.2.2 Synthesis of Fluorinated Conjugated Polymers
11.3.2.3 Chlorination
11.3.3 Side-Chain Engineering
11.3.4 Random Copolymerization
11.4 Properties
11.4.1 Electronic Properties
11.4.2 Charge Carrier Mobility
11.4.2.1 Intrinsic Charge Trapping
11.4.2.2 Light Polymers
11.4.3 Charge Carrier Transport
11.4.3.1 Single-Layer (SL) Transportation
11.4.3.2 n-Type (Electron-Transporting)
11.4.3.3 p-Type (Hole-Transporting)
11.4.4 Intra- and Interchain Charge Transport
11.4.5 Optical Properties
11.4.6 Mechanical Properties of Organic Semiconductors
11.4.7 Physical Properties
11.5 Polymer Semiconductor Characterization Techniques
11.5.1 Physicochemical Characterization Techniques
11.5.1.1 Microscopy Based Characterization Techniques
11.5.1.2 Spectroscopy Based Characterization Techniques
11.5.1.3 X-ray Based Characterization Techniques
11.5.2 Electrical and Optical Polymer Semiconductor Characterization Techniques
11.5.2.1 Recombination Lifetime Characterization
11.5.2.2 Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS)
11.5.2.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
11.5.2.4 Ellipsometric Spectroelectrochemistry
11.6 Devices Based on Organic Polymer Semiconductors
11.6.1 Hybrid Organic–Inorganic Materials
11.6.2 Polymeric Field-Effect Thin-Film Transistors (PTFTs)
11.6.2.1 Classification of the Transistors Based on Semiconductor Polymers
11.6.2.1.1 p-Channel Polymer Transistors: Ability to Conduct Holes
11.6.2.1.2 n-Channel Polymer Transistors: Ability to Conduct Electrons
11.6.2.1.2.1 Imide-Functionalized n-Type Polymers
11.6.2.1.2.2 Amide-Functionalized n-Type Polymers
11.6.2.1.2.3 B–N Embedded Polymers
11.6.2.1.2.4 Cyano-Functionalized Polymers
11.6.2.2 Ambipolar Polymeric Semiconductors
11.6.3 Current Techniques of Transistor Fabrication
11.6.3.1 Inkjet Printing
11.6.3.2 Push Coating
11.6.3.3 Improvements in PTFT Structure
11.6.3.3.1 Low Voltage PTFTs on Plastic (Ion-Gel Gate)
11.6.3.3.2 Self-Encapsulation
11.6.3.3.3 Nucleic Agents
11.6.4 Sensors
11.6.4.1 Chemical Sensors
11.6.4.2 Metal-Organic Frameworks as Chemical Sensors
11.6.4.3 Gas Sensors
11.6.5 Organic Photovoltaics
11.6.5.1 Carbon Nanotubes for Organic Photovoltaics
11.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Polymer Organic Photovoltaics
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Materials for Organic Photovoltaics
12.3 Processing of OPV Cells
12.4 The Basic Operational Process of OPV
12.5 Current Density (J)–Voltage (V) Characteristics for OPVs
12.6 Small Molecule-Based OPVs
12.7 Polymer-Based OPVs
12.8 Hybrid Organic–Inorganic Photovoltaic Devices
12.9 Tandem Organic Photovoltaic Devices
12.10 Effects of Temperature on OPV Cells
12.11 Fundamental Limitations of OPVs
12.12 Future Development Regarding the PCE Enhancement of OPVs
12.13 Status of the OPV Industry
12.14 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 13: Polymers and Their Composites for Wearable Electronics
13.1 Wearable Electronics: Definition and Driving Forces
13.2 Conductive Polymers and Their Composites in WEs
13.3 Composites of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials and Polymers for Wearable Electronics
13.3.1 Graphene
13.3.2 Carbon Nanotubes
13.3.3 Graphene Nanoribbons
13.3.4 Graphene Quantum Dots
13.4 Chitin and Its Derivatives for WEs
13.5 Piezoelectric Elastomers and Their Composites for WEs
13.6 Rare-Earth-Based Composites
13.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 14: Polymer-Based Organic Electronics
14.1 Introduction
14.2 History of Conjugated Polymers
14.3 Conjugated Polymers
14.4 One-Dimensional (1D) Conjugated Polymers
14.4.1 Conjugated Polyphenylenes
14.4.1.1 Linear and Ladder-Type Polyphenylenes
14.4.1.2 Stepladder Polyphenylenes with Bridging Atoms
14.4.1.2.1 Polyfluorenes (PFs)
14.4.1.2.1.1 PFs: Polymers for Blue PLEDs
14.4.1.2.1.2 PFs: Hosts for Red, Green, Blue, as well as for White PLEDs
14.4.1.2.1.3 PFs: Electron Rich Material for PSCs
14.4.1.2.2 C-Bridged Stepladder Polyphenylenes
14.4.1.2.3 PCz and Heteroatom Bridged Stepladder Polyphenylenes
14.4.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH)-Based Conjugated Polymers
14.4.3 Thiophene-Containing Conjugated Polymers
14.4.4 Polythiophenes and Their Derivatives
14.4.5 Thienoacene-Containing Conjugated Polymers
14.4.6 Naphthodithiophene-Containing Conjugated Polymers
14.4.7 Donor-Acceptor (D-A) Polymers
14.5 Two-Dimensional (2D) Conjugated Polymers
14.5.1 Conjugated Macrocycles
14.5.2 Two-Dimensional (2D) D-A Polymers
14.6 Future Scope and Conclusions
References
Chapter 15: Polymers and Their Composites for Thermoelectric Applications
15.1 Introduction: Background and Motivation
15.2 Fundamentals of Thermoelectrics and Key Parameters
15.2.1 Conversion Efficiency (η) of Thermoelectric Devices
15.2.2 The Dimensionless Figure of Merit (ZT) of Thermoelectric Materials
15.2.3 Seebeck Coefficient (S) of Thermoelectric Materials
15.2.4 Electrical Conductivity (σ) of Thermoelectric Materials
15.2.5 Thermal Conductivity (κ) of Thermoelectric Materials
15.3 Fundamental Studies on Improving Thermoelectric Performance
15.4 Development of Polymer-Based Thermoelectric Materials
15.5 Development of Polymer-Based Composites for Thermoelectric Materials
15.6 Summary and Outlook
References
Chapter 16: Polymeric Materials for Hydrogen Storage
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Hydrogen Storage Measurement
16.3 Polymer-Based Hydrogen Storage Systems
16.3.1 Organic Polymers
16.3.1.1 Polymers of Intrinsic Microporosity (PIM)
16.3.1.2 Synthesis
16.3.1.3 Characterization
16.3.1.4 Hydrogen Uptake and BET Surface Area
16.3.2 Nanoporous Organic Polymers
16.3.2.1 Synthesis
16.3.2.2 Characterization
16.3.2.3 Hydrogen Uptake and BET Surface Area
16.3.3 Soluble Polymers
16.3.3.1 Synthesis
16.3.3.2 Characterization
16.3.3.3 Hydrogen Uptake and BET Surface Area
16.3.4 Polymer-Based Composites
16.3.4.1 Synthesis
16.3.4.2 Characterization
16.3.4.3 Hydrogen Uptake and BET Surface Area
16.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Polymers and Their Composites for Water-Splitting Applications
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Electrolysis
17.2.1 HTS Electrolysis
17.2.1.1 Polymer-Obtained Boron-Doped Bismuth Oxide Nanocomposites
17.2.2 PEM Electrolysis
17.2.2.1 Ir and Ru Modified PANI Polymers
17.2.2.2 Polymeric Nanofibers
17.2.2.3 Nanocages Obtained from Polymer/Co Complexes
17.2.2.4 Polymeric Binders
17.2.3 AW Electrolysis
17.2.3.1 Organic Polymers
17.2.3.1.1 Ion-Conductive Polymers
17.2.3.1.2 Conjugated Polymers
17.2.3.1.3 Carbon Materials Obtained from Organic Polymers
17.2.3.2 Carbonized Porous Conducting Polymers
17.2.3.3 3D Printed Polymers
17.2.4 PE Electrolysis
17.2.4.1 Poly Urethane Acrylate
17.2.4.2 Polymer-Based Dye-Sensitized Cells
17.2.4.3 Polymer Electrolytes
17.2.4.4 Polymer-Templated Nanospiders
17.3 Photocatalysis
17.3.1 Photolysis
17.3.1.1 Conjugated Polymers
17.3.2 Photosynthesis
17.3.3 Cocatalysis
17.4 Radiolysis
17.5 Thermolysis
References
Index