Polarized Light in Biomedical Imaging and Sensing: Clinical and Preclinical Applications

Contents
Polarized Light
1 Introduction
1.1 Jones Formalism
1.2 Stokes Formalism
1.3 Poincaré Sphere Representation
1.4 Mueller Matrix
2 Basic Polarimetric Properties of Any Sample
2.1 Decomposition of Mueller Matrices
3 Summary
References
Mueller Matrix Analysis, Decompositions, and Novel Quantitative Approaches to Processing Complex Polarimetric Data
1 Introduction
2 General Considerations About the Form and Structure of Mueller Matrices in Biological Tissues
2.1 Bulk Tissue Backscattering
2.2 Transmission in a Thin Tissue
3 Methods Based on a Serial Model
3.1 Polar Decompositions of Depolarizing Mueller Matrices
3.2 Normal Form and Symmetric Decomposition
4 Methods Based on a Differential Model
4.1 Differential Analysis Based on the Matrix Logarithm
4.2 Differential Analysis Based on an Analytic Inversion
4.3 The Case of a Weakly Anisotropic Depolarizing Medium
5 Methods Based on Polarimetric Indices
5.1 Depolarization Index
5.2 Anisotropy Coefficients
5.3 Indices of Polarimetric Purity
5.4 Average Degrees of Polarization
6 An Experimental Example
6.1 Polar Decomposition
6.2 Symmetric Decomposition and Normal Form
6.3 Differential Methods
6.3.1 Matrix Logarithm
6.3.2 Analytic Inversion
6.3.3 Weak Anisotropy Approximation
6.4 Depolarization Index
6.5 Anisotropy Coefficients
6.6 Indices of Polarimetric Purity
6.7 Average Degrees of Polarization
7 Summary and Outlook
References
Mueller Matrix Polarimetry in Biomedicine: Enabling Technology, Biomedical Applications, and Future Prospects
1 Introduction
2 Mueller Polarimetry: Concepts and Methods
2.1 What Is Polarized Light?
2.2 Stokes Vectors: Describing Polarized Light
2.3 Mueller Matrix: Describing Material Polarization Properties
2.4 Mueller Matrix Measurement
2.5 Experimental Design and Information Content Considerations
3 Biomedical Applications of Mueller Polarimetry
3.1 Mueller Polarimetry and Pre-cancer/Cancer
3.2 Probing Sub-Micron Structural Anisotropy for Pre-cancer Detection
3.3 Fluorescence Mueller Polarimetry: A Spectroscopic Diagnostic Tool
4 Hybrid and Endoscopic Mueller Approaches
4.1 Depth-Resolved Hybrid Modalities: Elucidating Depth Effects
4.2 Mueller Polarimetry as a Guidance Tool for Mass Spectrometry
4.3 Endoscopic Mueller Polarimetry
5 Summary and Future Outlook
References
Polarization-Sensitive Monte Carlo
1 Vector Radiative Transfer Equation (VRTE)
1.1 Integro-differential Form
1.2 Integral Form of VRTE
2 Monte Carlo Solution of the VRTE
2.1 Generation of Random Numbers with Given Probability Distribution
2.2 Photon Random Walk
2.3 Scattering by the Spheres Embedded in a Homogeneous Medium
2.4 Reflection/Refraction at the Interfaces
3 Programmatic Example of Polarization-sensitive Monte Carlo
4 Applications
5 Summary and Future Directions
References
Polarized Light Imaging of the Sub-diffuse Regime of Tissues
1 Introduction
1.1 Imaging Superficial Tissue Layers
1.2 Polarization Gating to Image Sub-diffuse Regime
2 Polarized Monte Carlo Simulations
2.1 HQ Versus n Scatterings with Constant μs
2.2 HQ Versus n Scatterings with Constant μs(1-g)
3 Mechanisms of Depolarization
3.1 Depolarization by Scattering
3.2 Depolarization by Birefringence
4 Rates of Depolarization for Various Tissues
5 Conclusion
References
Mueller Polarimetric Imaging for Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia Detection
1 Introduction
2 Cervical Cancer
3 Mueller Polarimetry
4 Mueller Polarimetric Imaging of Cervix: The Proof of Principle
5 Interpretation of the Experimental Results
6 The First Statistical Evaluation
7 A Generalized Framework for Statistical Analysis
8 Mueller Polarimetric Colposcope for In Vivo Analysis of Uterine Cervix
9 Summary
References
Polarimetric Endoscopy
1 Introduction
2 Endoscopes
3 Instrumental Polarization
3.1 Optical Materials and Strains
3.2 Reflection and Refraction
3.3 Total Internal Reflection
3.4 Thin Film Coating
3.5 Optical Fibres
3.6 Illumination Channel of Endoscopes
3.7 Imaging Channel of Rod Lens-Based Rigid Endoscopes
3.8 GRIN Lenses
4 Complete Mueller Polarimetric Endoscopy
4.1 Mueller Polarimetric Rigid Endoscope
4.2 Single Mode Fibre-Based Laser Mueller Polarimeter
4.3 High Speed Single Mode Fibre Mueller Polarimeter
5 Partial Mueller Polarimetric Endoscopy
5.1 Polarimetric Endoscopes Based on Stereo-endoscopes
5.2 3 = 3 Mueller Polarimetric Endoscope Based on a Rigid Endoscope
5.3 3 = 3 Modified Flexible Endoscope for Mueller Polarimetry
5.4 3 = 3 Mueller Polarimetric Fibre Optic Probe
5.5 Polarization-Resolved Coherent Fibre Bundle
6 Summary
References
Mueller Polarimetry of Brain Tissues
1 Introduction
2 Optical Properties of Brain Tissue
3 Mueller Polarimetry
3.1 General Principles of Mueller Polarimetry
3.2 Optimal Design and Calibration of Mueller Polarimeter
4 Pre-clinical Studies of Brain Tissue with Polarized Light
4.1 Mueller Polarimetry for the Assessment of Alzheimer Disease Progression in Mice Model
4.2 Visualization of Fiber Tracts of Healthy Brain White Matter with Imaging Mueller Polarimetry
4.2.1 Thick Sections of Fixed Human Brain
4.2.2 Thick Sections of Fresh Calf Brain
5 Summary
References
Clinical Applications of Polarization-Sensitive Optical Coherence Tomography
1 Introduction
2 Polarization-Sensitive OCT
2.1 Basic Principles of OCT Polarimetry
2.2 PS-OCT Formalism
2.3 Instrumentation
2.4 Polarimetric Signal Reconstruction
2.5 Tissue Polarization Properties
3 Clinical Investigations with PS-OCT
3.1 Ophthalmic PS-OCT
3.2 Intravascular PS-OCT
3.3 Other Clinical Applications of Catheter-Based PS-OCT
3.4 Microscopic PS-OCT of the Skin and Other Tissues
3.5 Future Developments
4 Conclusions
References
Tractography Using Polarization-Sensitive Optical Coherence Tomography
1 Introduction
2 Optical Birefringence and Fiber Orientation Measurements
3 Fiber Orientation Measurements in PSOCT
4 Measuring Local Optic Axis in PSOCT
5 3D Fiber Orientation Measurements in PSOCT
6 Summary
References
Mueller Matrix Microscopy
1 Introduction
2 Mueller Matrix Polarimetry
3 Dual Rotating Retarder Based MM Microscopy
3.1 Dual Continuous Rotating Retarder Based Transmissive MM Microscopic Imaging System
3.2 Dual Rotating Retarder Based Transmissive MM Microscope
3.3 Dual Rotating Retarder Based Transmissive Multiwavelength MM Microscope
3.4 Dual Rotating Retarder Based Collinear Backscattering MM Microscope
4 Rotating Retarder/DoFP Based Microscope
4.1 DoFP Polarimeter Based Transmissive 3 = 4 MM Microscope
4.2 Dual DoFP Polarimeter Based Transmissive MM Microscope
5 MM Based on Birefringent Nematic Liquid Crystals
6 MM Transformation Parameters for Polarization Feature Extraction
6.1 Mueller Matrix Rotation Invariant Parameters
6.2 Mueller Matrix Azimuth Orientation Parameters
6.3 Mueller Matrix Symmetry Breaking Parameters
7 Machine Leaning for Polarization Feature Extraction
8 Prospect About MM Microscopy
References
Confocal Laser Scanning Polarimetry
1 Introduction
2 Polarization-Sensitive Confocal Imaging
2.1 Basic Principles of Polarization-Sensitive Confocal Imaging
2.2 Polarization Sensing Principles
3 Instrumentation
3.1 Confocal Fluorescence Polarizing Microscopy
3.2 Mueller Matrix Polarimetry
3.3 Combined Systems: Non-linear and Linear
3.4 Polarimetric Signal Reconstruction
3.5 Lu-Chipman Decomposition
3.6 Coherency Matrix
4 Application of Confocal-Sensitive Polarimetry
4.1 Ophthalmic: Cornea
4.2 Embryonic Confocal (Regenerative)
4.3 Other Clinical Applications
4.4 Polarized Fluorescence
5 Conclusions
References
Improvement of Resolution and Polarisation Measurement Precision in Biomedical Imaging Through Adaptive Optics
1 Status and Challenges in Tissue Polarimetry
2 Vectorial Aberrations and the Interaction of Light with Specimens
2.1 Phase Aberrations, Polarisation Aberrations, and Adaptive Correction
2.2 Combined Effects of Polarisation and Phase Modulation
3 From Phase to Vectorial Adaptive Optics for Polarisation Imaging
3.1 Concepts for Phase, Polarisation, and Vectorial Adaptive Optics
3.2 Vectorial Adaptive Optics Through Sensor-Based and Sensorless Methods
4 Prospects for Vectorial Adaptive Optics
4.1 Vectorial Image Enhancement: Label-Based and Label-Free
4.2 Compensation of Other Vectorial Aberrations: Diattenuator and Depolariser
References
Index