This book introduces the physics and chemistry of plastic scintillators (fluorescent polymers) that are able to emit light when exposed to ionizing radiation, discussing their chemical modification in the early 1950s and 1960s, as well as the renewed upsurge in interest in the 21st century. The book presents contributions from various researchers on broad aspects of plastic scintillators, from physics, chemistry, materials science and applications, covering topics such as the chemical nature of the polymer and/or the fluorophores, modification of the photophysical properties (decay time, emission wavelength) and loading of additives to make the material more sensitive to, e.g., fast neutrons, thermal neutrons or gamma rays. It also describes the benefits of recent technological advances for plastic scintillators, such as nanomaterials and quantum dots, which allow features that were previously not achievable with regular organic molecules or organometallics.
Author(s): Matthieu Hamel
Series: Topics in Applied Physics, 140
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2021
Language: English
Pages: 290
City: Cham
Foreword
References
Preface
Contents
Contributors
Part I Materials
1 Introduction—Overview on Plastic and Inorganic Scintillators
1.1 History of Scintillators
1.2 Plastic Scintillator Chemists
1.3 The Scintillation Process in Plastics and Inorganic Materials/Crystals
1.4 Typical Preparation Process and Size Possibilities
1.5 Main Parameters and Tools for Modification or Improvement
1.5.1 Light Yield
1.5.2 Decay Time
1.5.3 Emission Wavelength
1.5.4 Behavior Against External Environment
1.5.5 Effective Atomic Number and Density
1.6 Summary
References
2 Neutron/Gamma Pulse Shape Discrimination in Plastics Scintillators: From Development to Commercialization
2.1 Physical Basis for Neutron/Gamma Discrimination in Organic Scintillators
2.2 Plastic Scintillators with Efficient Fast Neutron/Gamma Discrimination
2.2.1 PPO-Based PSD Plastics
2.2.2 PSD Plastics Utilizing Alternative Dyes and Dye Mixtures
2.3 PSD Plastics for Combined Detection of Fast and Thermal Neutrons
2.3.1 10B-loaded PSD Plastic Scintillators
2.3.2 6Li-loaded PSD Plastic Scintillators
2.4 Commercialization and Further Directions of Studies
References
3 The Detection of Slow Neutrons
3.1 Slow Neutrons: Essential Features
3.1.1 The Definition of Slow Neutrons
3.1.2 The Origins of Slow Neutrons
3.2 Nuclear Reactions of Interest in Slow Neutron Detection
3.2.1 Natural Abundance, Reaction Cross Section, Q-Value, and Typology of Reaction Products
3.2.2 Main Nuclear Reactions of Interest
3.2.3 Size of the Scintillator: Slow Neutron Mean Free Path and the Interaction of Reaction Products
3.3 Detection of Reaction Products and n/γ Discrimination
3.3.1 Background Radiation
3.3.2 Pulse Height Discrimination
3.3.3 Pulse Shape Discrimination
3.3.4 Compensated Detectors
3.3.5 Multiplicity-Gated Detection
3.3.6 Capture-Gated Detection
3.4 Figures of Merit for Slow Neutron Detectors
3.4.1 Figures of Merit About the Response to Neutrons
3.4.2 Figures of Merit About the Response to Gamma Rays
3.4.3 Figures of Merit About the Response to Neutron Against the Response to Gamma Rays
3.5 Incorporation of Neutron Converters into Plastic Scintillator-Based Detectors
3.5.1 Homogeneous Incorporation
3.5.2 Heterogeneous Incorporation
3.6 Applications of Plastic Scintillators to the Detection of Slow Neutrons
3.6.1 Homeland Security
3.6.2 Neutron Flux Monitoring and Source Characterization
3.6.3 Reactor Antineutrino Experiments, Surveillance, and Monitoring
References
4 Chemical Approach on Organometallic Loading in Plastic Scintillators and Its Applications
4.1 Introduction/Context
4.1.1 Plastic Scintillation
4.1.2 Frame of This Chapter
4.1.3 Properties Optimization
4.1.4 Chemical Design and Material Science, What the Loading Implies
4.1.5 Organization of This Chapter: Application Driven
4.2 Scintillation Process Enhancement
4.2.1 Triplet Harvesting
4.2.2 Iridium Complexes
4.2.3 Europium Complexes
4.3 Photon Detection
4.3.1 Theory
4.3.2 X-ray Detection
4.3.3 Gamma Detection
4.4 Neutron Detection
4.4.1 Thermal Neutron
4.4.2 Lithium Loading
4.4.3 Boron Loading
4.4.4 Cadmium and Gadolinium Loading
4.5 Conclusion
4.6 Table by Elements
References
5 Polysiloxane-Based Scintillators
5.1 Foreword
5.1.1 Silicon-Based Polymer Properties: Chemistry
5.1.2 The Synthesis of Silicones
5.2 Optical Properties of Phenyl-Containing Polysiloxanes
5.3 Design of Polysiloxane-Based Scintillators
5.3.1 Energy Transfer in Organic Polymers
5.3.2 Polymeric Scintillators
5.3.3 Polysiloxane-Based Scintillators
5.4 Polysiloxane Scintillators for Neutron Detection
5.4.1 Neutron Detection in Organic Scintillators
5.4.2 B and Li Loaded Polysiloxanes for Detection of Thermal Neutrons
5.4.3 Design of Polysiloxane Scintillators for n/γ Discrimination
5.5 Summary
References
6 Composite Scintillators
6.1 Introduction to Organic–Inorganic Composites
6.1.1 Overview on Fabrication Methods of Nanocomposites
6.1.2 Optical Properties Related to the Nanocomposite Structure
6.2 Plastic Scintillators Incorporating Non-emitting Inorganic Nanoparticles
6.2.1 Sol–gel-Derived Organic–Inorganic Composite Scintillators
6.2.2 Nanocomposite Scintillators Fabricated via Two-Step Synthesis
6.3 Nanocomposite Scintillators Comprising Luminescent Nanoparticles
6.3.1 Nanocomposite Scintillators Comprising Inorganic Phosphor Nanoparticles
6.3.2 Nanocomposite Scintillators Comprising Semiconductor Nanocrystals
6.4 Summary and Future Prospects
References
7 Molecular Design Considerations for Different Classes of Organic Scintillators
7.1 Design Considerations for Crystalline, Plastic, and Liquid Scintillators
7.1.1 Background on Scintillation Mechanisms
7.1.2 Process (1): Direct Excitation into π-Electronic States
7.1.3 Process (2): Overview of Direct Ionization and Recombination of π-states
7.1.4 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Different Classes of Organic Scintillators
7.2 Future Opportunities
References
8 Organic Glass Scintillators
8.1 Introduction to Organic Glass Scintillators
8.2 Glassy State of Matter
8.3 Differentiating Characteristics of Organic Molecular Glasses
8.4 Design Strategies for Stable Organic Molecular Glasses
8.4.1 Nonplanar Structures
8.4.2 Increasing Molecular Size
8.4.3 Multiple Conformations
8.4.4 Physical Mixtures
8.5 Fluorescent Molecular Glasses as Organic Glass Scintillators (OGSs)
8.6 Organic Glass Scintillators: Case Studies
8.7 Organic Glass Thermal and Mechanical Properties
8.7.1 Mechanical Strength: Intermolecular Interactions
8.7.2 Mechanical Strength: Organic Glass/Polymer Blending
8.8 Properties of OGS/Polymer Blends
8.8.1 Effect of Small-Molecule Additives on Tg
8.8.2 Scintillation Properties of OGS/Polymer Blends
8.9 Organic Glass Scintillator Fabrication Methods
8.10 Long-Term Stability and Environmental Aging of Organic Glass Scintillators
8.10.1 Surface Versus Bulk Diffusion
8.10.2 Accelerated Aging of Organic Glasses and Mitigation Methods
8.11 Compatibility of OGS with Multi-functional Additives
8.11.1 Boron-Loaded OGS for Fast Neutron/Gamma PSD and Thermal Neutron Capture
8.11.2 Metal-Loaded OGS for Fast Neutron/Gamma PSD and Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy
8.12 Summary and Future Outlook
References
Part II Applications
9 Optical Improvements of Plastic Scintillators by Nanophotonics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Enhancement of Light Extraction Efficiency of Plastic Scintillators by Photonic Crystals
9.2.1 Introduction of Photonic Crystals
9.2.2 Enhancement Mechanism of Light Extraction Efficiency by Photonic Crystals
9.2.3 Control of Directional Emission by Photonic Crystals
9.2.4 Consideration for the Structural Design of Photonic Crystals
9.3 Control of Directional Emission of Plastic Scintillators by Plasmonic Lattice Resonances
9.4 Patterning Techniques for Plastic Scintillators
9.4.1 Self-assembly Lithography
9.4.2 Nanoimprint Lithography (NIL)
9.4.3 X-Ray Interference Lithography (XIL)
9.5 Improved Scintillation Performance of Detectors by Photonic Crystals
9.6 Summary and Remark
References
10 Analog and Digital Signal Processing for Nuclear Instrumentation
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Light to Electric Signal Conversion
10.2.1 Design of PMTs
10.2.2 Solid-State Semiconductor Photodetectors
10.3 The Signal Acquisition Frontend
10.3.1 Charge to Voltage Conversion
10.3.2 Gain and Pulse Shaping Stage
10.3.3 Voltage Limiters
10.3.4 Impedance Matching and Other Effects
10.4 The Digitization Stage
10.4.1 Signal Digitization Basics
10.4.2 Digitizer Architectures
10.5 Signal Processing and Feature Extraction
10.5.1 Low-Level Digital Stream Processing
10.5.2 Digital Pulse Processing
10.6 Data and Information Processing
10.6.1 Count Rate Analysis
10.6.2 Discrimination of the Nature of the Interactions
10.6.3 Spectral Unmixing and Radionuclide Identification
10.7 Conclusion
References
11 Radioactive Noble Gas Detection and Measurement with Plastic Scintillators
11.1 Radioactive Noble Gas Isotopes
11.1.1 Kr-85
11.1.2 Xe-131m
11.1.3 Xe-133
11.1.4 Xe-133m
11.1.5 Xe-135
11.1.6 Ar-37
11.1.7 Rn-222 and Progenies
11.1.8 Rn-220 and Progenies
11.2 Application of Plastic Scintillators to the Detection of Noble Gas
11.2.1 Xenon Detection Systems for the CTBT Network
11.2.2 Kr-85 Monitors Using Plastic Scintillators
11.2.3 Radon and Thoron Detection and Measurement with Plastic Scintillators
11.3 RNG-Related Properties of Plastic Scintillators
11.3.1 Noble Gas Absorption in Plastic Materials
11.3.2 Application of Pulse Shape Discrimination to 222Rn Measurements
11.3.3 Description of the Alpha-Particle Peak Shapes in 222Rn Measurements with Plastic Scintillators
11.4 Concluding Remarks
References
12 Recent Advances and Clinical Applications of Plastic Scintillators in the Field of Radiation Therapy
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Basic Dosimetry Properties of Plastic Scintillators
12.2.1 Basic Properties of Scintillators Used in Radiation Therapy
12.2.2 Relating Scintillation Signal to Absorbed Dose
12.2.3 Other Properties
12.3 Signal Processing in Plastic Scintillators Dosimeters
12.3.1 Cherenkov and Other Sources of Stem Effects
12.3.2 Multi-point Radiation Therapy Plastic Scintillator Dosimeters
12.4 Clinical Applications and Special Procedures
12.4.1 Photon and Electron External Beam Radiation Therapy
12.4.2 Proton External Beam Radiation Therapy
12.4.3 Brachytherapy
12.5 Conclusion
References
13 Plastic Scintillators in Environmental Analysis
13.1 Environmental Analysis: Requirements and Characteristics. Contribution of Plastic Scintillators
13.2 Preparation of Plastic Scintillators for Environmental α/β Emitting Radionuclide Analysis
13.2.1 Fibers and Sheets
13.2.2 Plastic Scintillation Particles
13.2.3 Stability of Plastic Scintillation Microspheres
13.2.4 Plastic Scintillation Resins
13.3 Direct Surface and Soil Analysis
13.4 Sensors and Online Analysis of Alpha and Beta Emitting Radionuclides
13.4.1 Sensors Based on Plastic Scintillation Microspheres (PSm)
13.4.2 Sensors Based on Plastic Scintillation Resins
13.4.3 Sensors Based on Plastic Scintillation Fibers (PSf)
13.4.4 Sensors Based on Plastic Scintillation Sheets
13.5 Plastic Scintillators for Beta Emitting Radionuclide Analysis
13.6 Plastic Scintillators for Alpha Emitting Radionuclide Analysis
13.7 Conclusion
References
14 Use of Scintillators to Study the Earth from Ground to the Radiation Belts
14.1 Survey of Earth Natural Radioactivity and Potential Nuclear Accidents, Citizen Science
14.1.1 Source of Terrestrial Natural Radioactivity
14.1.2 Sources of Radioactive Pollution in the Environment
14.1.3 Nuclear Activities Survey and Alert in Case of Accident: Description of Official and NGO Networks
14.1.4 Measuring and Mapping the Radioactivity in the Environment: The Citizen Science Approach
14.2 High-Energy Processes in the Atmosphere, Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes (TGFs), and Gamma-Ray Glows
14.2.1 Gamma Ray Emissions During Thunderstorms
14.2.2 Gamma-Ray Glows
14.2.3 Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes (TGFs)
14.2.4 TARANIS: A Satellite to Study the Effects of Thunderstorms and Lightning
14.2.5 Measure of Gamma Rays and Particles in the Earth Radiation Belts
14.2.6 Measure of Gamma Rays/Particles from the Radiation Belts
14.2.7 IGOSAT: A Student Nanosat Project to Measure Radiation Belts Gamma Ray/Particles
14.3 Conclusion
References
15 Plastic Scintillator Detectors for Particle Physics
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Principles of Calorimetry in High-Energy Physics
15.2.1 Electromagnetic and Hadronic Showers
15.2.2 Historical Review of Plastic Scintillating Calorimetry
15.3 Modern Plastic Scintillator Calorimeter Design
15.3.1 Experiments at the Large Hadron Collider
15.3.2 High-Granularity Calorimeters for Particle Flow Strategies
15.3.3 Dual-Readout Solutions
15.4 Neutrino Experiments
15.4.1 Optimizing Calorimeters for Neutrino Physics
15.4.2 Tracking Calorimeters for Neutrinos
15.5 Large Plastic Scintillator Detectors in the Future
15.5.1 Neutron Sensitivity
15.6 Conclusion
References
Appendix Molecules Cited in the Book
Index
