Plant Growth Promoting Microorganisms of Arid Region

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Chapter 1: Exploring Microbial Diversity of Arid Regions of Globe for Agricultural Sustainability: A Revisit
1 Introduction
2 Adaptive Strategies of Dryland Flora
2.1 Structure of Desert Microcommunities
2.1.1 Bacterial Communities
2.1.2 Fungal Communities
2.1.3 Archaeal Communities
2.1.4 Viral Communities
3 Microbial Communities in Deserts Across the Globe
3.1 Deserts of South and North America
3.2 Thar and Cold Deserts of India
3.3 Deserts of China
3.4 Deserts of Africa
3.5 Deserts of Arabia
4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Harnessing Drought-Tolerant PGPM in Arid Agroecosystem for Plant Disease Management and Soil Amelioration
1 Introduction
2 Mycorrhizae, Endophytes, and Symbionts in Plant Growth Promotion
3 Plant Growth-Promoting Metabolites
4 Microbial Volatiles and Other Compounds in Plant Growth and Defense
5 Biocontrol Potential of PGPM
5.1 Soil Amendments in Biocontrol
5.2 Suppressive Soil and Biocontrol
5.3 PGPM in Induced Resistance in Plants
6 Omics Approaches in PGPM
7 PGPM-Directed Arid Land Amelioration
8 Outlook and Future Challenges
References
Chapter 3: Role of Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria in Rainfed and Irrigated Crops
1 Introduction
2 Effect of Stress on Crop Production
2.1 Effect of Drought/Water Stress
2.1.1 Morphological Responses
2.1.1.1 Growth
2.1.1.2 Yield
2.1.2 Physiological Responses
2.1.2.1 Water-Nutrient Balance
2.1.2.2 Photosynthesis
2.1.2.3 Assimilate Partitioning
2.1.3 Metabolic Responses
2.2 Effect of Salinity
3 Mechanism of Stress Tolerance in Plants
3.1 Morphological Mechanisms
3.2 Physiological Mechanisms
3.3 Molecular Mechanisms
4 Role of Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) in Stress Management
4.1 Amelioration of Water Stress
4.1.1 ACC Deaminase Production
4.1.2 IAA Production
4.1.3 Exopolysaccharide Production
4.1.4 Osmoregulation
4.2 Amelioration of Salinity Stress
4.2.1 Osmotic Balance
4.2.2 Ion Homeostasis
4.2.3 Phytohormone Signaling
4.2.4 Extracellular Molecules
5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 4: Plant Growth-Promoting Microbes: The Potential Phosphorus Solubilizers in Soils of Arid Agro-Ecosystem
1 Introduction
2 Phosphorus Status and Dissolution Potential in the Soils of Arid Ecosystem
3 Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganisms (PGPM)
4 Potential Phosphate-Solubilizing Microorganisms (PSM)
4.1 Phosphate-Solubilizing Bacteria and Cyanobacteria
4.2 Fungi for Phosphorus Solubilization and Mobilization
5 Mechanism Involved in Solubilization and Mobilization of Insoluble Phosphates
5.1 Production of Organic Acids
5.2 Production of Phosphatase Enzymes
5.3 Microbial Biomass P
5.4 Exo-Polysaccharide (EPS) Production
5.5 Release of Protons during Ammonia Assimilation
5.6 Inorganic Acid and H2S Production
5.7 Siderophore Production
5.8 Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) and ACC Deaminase Production
6 PGPM to Enhance P Availability in Arid Soils for Plant Nutrition
6.1 Inorganic P Solubilization
6.2 Organic P Mobilization by Phosphatases
6.3 Molecular Aspects of Phosphate Solubilization Using PSM
7 Factors Affecting Phosphate Solubilization Potential of PSM
8 Future Research Priorities
9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Diversity of PGPM and Ecosystem Services
1 Introduction
2 Agricultural Ecosystem
3 Ecosystem Function and Ecosystem Service
4 Categories of Ecosystem Services
5 Common International Classification for Ecosystem Services (CICES)
6 Ecosystem and Law of Conservation of Energy
7 Essential Nutrients and Difficulties in Their Assimilation by Plants
8 Supporting Services of Ecosystem: PGPM and Nutrient Cycling
8.1 Supporting Services of Ecosystem: Nitrogen Fixation
8.1.1 Mutualistic Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixers
8.1.2 Associative Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixers
8.1.3 Non-Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixers
8.2 Supporting Services of Ecosystem: Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms
8.3 Supporting Services of Ecosystem: Phosphate Absorbers
8.4 Supporting Services of Ecosystem: Potash Solubilizers/Mobilizers
8.5 Supporting Services of Ecosystem: Zinc Solubilizers
9 Supporting Services of Ecosystem: Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPM)
9.1 Regulatory Services of Ecosystem: Disease Control or Suppression of Pathogen
9.2 Postharvest Diseases
10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganisms: An Option for Drought and Salinity Management in Arid Agriculture
1 Introduction
2 Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganisms (PGPM)
3 PGPM Interactions Under Drought Stress
3.1 PGPM Interactions Under Salinity Stress
3.2 PGPM Interactions Under Other Abiotic Stress(es)
4 Recent Advancements in PGPM Interactions Under Abiotic Stress and Future Outlook
5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Plant Growth-Promoting Microbes: Key Players in Organic Agriculture
1 Introduction
2 Soil Microorganisms and Organic Agriculture
3 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)
4 Plant Growth Promotion Mechanisms
4.1 Direct Mechanisms
4.1.1 Biological Nitrogen Fixation
4.1.2 Phosphate Solubilization and Mobilization
4.1.3 Potassium Solubilization
4.1.4 Siderophore Production
4.1.5 Phytohormone Production
4.1.6 ACC Deaminase Production
4.2 Indirect Mechanisms
4.2.1 Antibiosis
4.2.2 Volatile Organic Compounds
4.2.3 Bioremediation
4.2.4 Induced Systemic Resistance
4.2.5 Modulation of Environmental Stresses
5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 8: Interceding Microbial Biofertilizers in Agroforestry System for Enhancing Productivity
1 Introduction
2 Agroforestry Importance in Arid Regions (In Western Rajasthan)
3 PGPR
3.1 Attributes of Ideal PGPR
3.2 Potential Role of PGPR in Agroforestry
3.3 Synthetic Pesticide v/s PGPR
3.4 Classification of PGPR
3.4.1 N2-Fixing Microbes
3.4.1.1 Symbiotic Nitrogen-Fixing
3.4.1.1.1 Nonleguminous Plant
Frankia
3.4.1.1.2 Leguminous Plant
Rhizobium
3.4.1.2 Nonsymbiotic Nitrogen-Fixing
3.4.1.2.1 Azotobacter
3.4.1.2.2 Azospirillum
3.4.1.2.3 Cyanobacteria
3.4.1.3 Free-Living N2 Fixers
3.4.1.3.1 Azolla
3.4.2 The Phosphate-Solubilizing Biofertilizers
3.4.2.1 Pseudomonas and Bacillus
3.4.2.2 Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Its Role in Agroforestry
3.4.3 The Potassium-Solubilizing Biofertilizers
4 Roadmap to Commercialization
5 Future Prospects and Challenges
6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Role of PGPM in Managing Soil-Borne Plant Pathogens in Horticulture Crops
1 Introduction
2 Plant Rhizosphere and Microorganisms
3 Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria
3.1 Endophytes
3.2 Plant Growth Promoting Fungus
4 Bio-control for Managing Soil-Borne Plant Pathogens
4.1 Criteria of Selection and Identification of a Biological Control Agents
4.2 Siderophores
4.3 Antibiosis
4.4 Parasitism and Induced Resistance
4.5 Management of Phyto-pathogens of Horticultural Crops Through PGPM Including Antagonistic Activities
5 Search for New Antagonists
6 Future Research Need
7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 10: The Use of Plant Growth Promoting Microorganisms in the Management of Soil-Borne Plant Pathogenic Organisms
1 Introduction
2 Groups of Microorganisms That Incite Soil-Borne Diseases of Crops (SBDC)
2.1 Fungi
2.2 Bacteria
2.3 Nematodes
2.4 Viruses
3 Dispersal of SBDC
4 Incidence of SBDC in Africa
4.1 Implications of SBD on Crop Growth and Productivity
4.2 Management of SBDC in Africa
4.2.1 Bush Burning and Land Fallowing
4.2.2 The Use of Synthetic Chemicals
5 PGPM: A Safe and Sustainable Option for Managing SBDP
5.1 Groups of PGPM
5.1.1 Fungi
5.1.2 Bacteria/Actinomycetes
5.1.3 Microalgae
6 Management of SBDC with PGPM in Africa: Current Status
6.1 Plant Growth-Promoting Fungi (PGPF)
6.2 Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria (PGPB) and Actinomycetes (PGPA)
6.3 Plant Growth-Promoting Microalgae
7 In Vivo Application of PGPM for the Management of SBDC
8 Mechanism of Action of PGPM in the Management of Plant Diseases
8.1 Solubilization and Enhancement of Nutrient Uptake
8.2 Mycoparasitism
8.3 Induced Systemic Resistance
8.4 Competition
8.5 Antibiosis
9 Benefits of PGPM in the Management of SBDP
10 Problems/Limitations of PGPM in the Management of SBDP
11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Role of Plant Growth Promoting Microbes in Managing Soil-Borne Pathogens in Forestry
1 Introduction
2 The Antagonistic Fungi Trichoderma and Gliocladium
3 White Rot Fungal Species
4 Antagonistic Bacteria
5 Biofertilizers
6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 12: Secondary Metabolites and Bioprospecting
1 Introduction
2 Synthesis of Secondary Metabolites by Elicitation and Precursor Feeding
2.1 Mechanism of Action
2.2 Types of Secondary Metabolites
2.2.1 Terpenes
2.2.2 Phenolic Compounds
2.2.3 Alkaloids
2.2.4 Phytosterols
2.3 Recent Biotechnological Approach for Synthesis of Secondary Metabolites
3 Functional Genomics and Secondary Metabolites
4 Fungal Endophytes for Synthesis of Secondary Metabolites
5 Role of Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria in Synthesis of Secondary Metabolites
6 Therapeutic Potential of Plant Secondary Metabolites
7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: PGPM: Fundamental, Bioformulation, Commercialization, and Success at Farmer´s Field
1 Introduction
2 PGPRs: Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria
2.1 Classification of PGPR
2.1.1 Based on Location
2.1.1.1 Extracellular PGPRs (ePGPRs)
2.1.1.2 Intracellular PGPRs (iPGPRs)
2.1.2 Based on Function
2.1.2.1 Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria
2.1.2.2 Biocontrolling Bacteria
2.1.2.3 Stress Homeoregulating Bacteria
2.1.3 Based on Activities
2.1.3.1 Biofertilizers
2.1.3.2 Phytostimulators
2.1.3.3 Rhizoremediators
2.1.3.4 Biopesticides
2.1.3.5 Bioprotectants
3 Deciphering the Mechanisms Involved in Biocontrol of Plant Diseases by PGPR
3.1 Competition
3.2 Antibiotic Production
3.3 HCN Production
3.4 Polysaccharide Production
3.5 Hydrolytic Enzyme Production
3.6 Induced Systemic Resistance
4 Commercialization of PGPRs
4.1 Types of Fermentation
4.1.1 Liquid Fermentation
4.1.2 Solid Fermentation
4.2 Development of Formulation of PGPRs
4.2.1 Characteristics of Good Formulation
4.2.2 Solid Formulations
4.2.2.1 Talc Formulation
4.2.2.2 Sawdust-Based Formulation
4.2.2.3 Peat Formulations
4.2.2.4 Fly Ash-Based Formulations
4.2.2.5 Press Mud Formulation
4.2.2.6 Vermiculite Formulation
4.2.2.7 Liquid-Based Formulations
4.2.2.8 Encapsulation-Based Formulations
4.3 Strategies to Improve the Efficacy of Formulations
4.3.1 Consortia Development with Multiple Strains
4.3.2 Strains of Bioagents that Are Capable to Contribute for Synergistic Expression of Biocontrol Genes
4.3.3 Use of Adjuvants, Spreaders, and Stickers Along with Formulations
4.3.4 Genetic Engineering of PGPR Strains
4.3.5 Assessing the Shelf Life of Formulation
5 Standardizing Delivery Systems
6 Consortia Application
7 Toxicological Data Generation
8 Registration of Biopesticide in India
9 Establishment of Public-Private Partnership
10 Quality Control
11 Bottlenecks in Commercialization of PGPRs
12 Farmer´s Psychology Towards PGPR
12.1 Specificity of PGPR Strains
12.2 Microbial Preference for Formulation
12.3 Handling and Reinoculation of PGPR
12.4 Inconsistency in Performance of PGPR Under Field Conditions
12.5 Regulatory Issues
12.6 Absence of Multidisciplinary Approach
13 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 14: PGPR: A Sustainable Agricultural Mitigator for Stressed Agro-Environments
1 Introduction
2 The Effects of Abiotic Stress on Agriculture
3 Abiotic Stress Tolerance and Plant Growth by PGPR under Environmental Stress Condition
4 Role of PGPR in Alleviating Drought Stress
5 Role of PGPR in Alleviating Salinity Stress
6 Role of PGPR in Alleviating Heavy Metal Stress
7 Role of PGPR in Alleviating Flooding Stress
8 Role of PGPR in Alleviating Cold Stress
9 Role of PGPR in Alleviating Heat Stress
10 Future Prospects
11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Endophytic PGPM-Derived Metabolites and their Role in Arid Ecosystem
1 Introduction
2 Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganisms (PGPMs)
2.1 Types and Classification of PGPMs
2.2 Role of PGPMs on Plant Growth Promotion
2.3 Bioactive Metabolites of Endophytic PGPMs
3 Endophytic PGPMs-Derived Metabolites in Plant Growth Promotion in Arid Ecosystem
3.1 Nutrient Availability
3.2 Biological Nitrogen (N2) Fixation
3.3 Phosphorus Solubilization
3.4 Potassium Solubilization
3.5 Siderophore Production
3.6 Zinc Solubilization
3.7 Sulphur Availability
4 Endophytic Microbes-Derived Metabolites in Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Arid Ecosystem
4.1 Towards Drought Tolerance in Plants
4.2 Towards Heat Tolerance in Plants
4.3 Towards Salinity Tolerance in Plants
5 Endophytic Microbial Metabolites in Plant-Microbe Interaction in an Arid Ecosystem
5.1 Management of Soil-Borne Diseases
5.2 Metabolites with Pesticidal Properties in Plant Insect Pests and Disease Management
5.3 Role of Metabolites in Systemic Acquired Resistance Development
6 High-Value Biochemicals from Endophytic Microorganisms in Arid Ecosystem
7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Current Regulatory Requirements for PGPM Products for Management of Seed, Soil and Plant Health: An Overview
1 Introduction
2 Agricultural Biologicals/Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganisms (PGPM)
2.1 Biofertilizers
2.2 Biostimulants
2.3 Biopesticides
3 Other Legislations Governing Biofertilizers and Biopesticides
3.1 Seed Legislations
3.2 The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
3.3 The Bureau of Indian Standards Act 2016
4 Bottlenecks in Regulation and Promotion of Biofertilizers and Biopesticides
4.1 Relaxed Guidelines for Registration
4.2 Efficacy
4.3 Availability and Choice
4.4 Supply Chain
4.5 Decentralized Production
4.6 Policy Support
5 Legal Issues Related to Marketing of PGPM Products (Biofertilizers and Biopesticides)
5.1 Barriers in the Registration and Certification Process
5.2 Effectiveness of Quality Monitoring
6 Future Prospects
7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Evolving Concepts of Biocontrol of Phytopathogens by Endophytic Pseudomonas Fluorescence
1 Introduction
2 Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR) Caused by Pseudomonas fluorescence
3 Pseudomonas fluorescens as Biocontrol Agent
3.1 Inhibition of Fungal Phytopathogens by Pseudomonas fluorescens
3.2 Inhibition of Bacterial Phytopathogens by Pseudomonas fluorescens
4 Mechanism of Biocontrol by Pseudomonas fluorescens
4.1 Cyanide Production
4.2 Siderophore-Mediated Biocontrol
4.3 Antibiosis
4.4 Competition for Infection Sites and Nutrition
4.5 Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR)
5 Antagonistic Activity of Pseudomonas fluorescens Isolates Against Phytopathogens
6 Changes in Enzymatic Activity of Plant Disease
7 Crop Response to Pseudomonas
References
Chapter 18: Symbiotic Effectiveness of Rhizobium Strains in Agriculture
1 Introduction
2 Rhizosphere Concept
3 The Genus Rhizobium
4 Taxonomy of Rhizobium sp.
5 Diversity and Evolution of Rhizobium Communities
6 Rhizobium Evolutionary Ecology
7 Nitrogen Fixing Efficiency of Rhizobium Isolates
8 Exopolysaccharides Production by Rhizobium
9 Indole Acetic Acid Production by Rhizobium
10 Siderophore Production by Rhizobium
11 Leghaemoglobin Content of Nodules
12 Antibiotic Resistance of Rhizobium
13 Chemotactic Activity of Legume Root Exudates
14 Thermotolerance of Rhizobium
15 Salt and Drought Tolerance of Rhizobium
16 Nitrogen Fixation in Legumes
17 Mutagenesis and Mutants of Rhizobium
18 Effect of Rhizobium Bioinoculant on Agricultural Crops
18.1 Nodulation and Biomass
18.2 Yield Components
References
Chapter 19: Inoculant Production and Formulation of Azospirillum Species
1 Introduction
2 Plant Growth Promotion by Azospirillum sp.
3 Azospirillum: A Promising Biofertiliser
4 Reasons for Poor Performance of Agricultural Bioinoculants
5 Inoculant Production and Formulation of Azospirillum sp.
5.1 Carrier-Based Inoculant
5.2 Alginate Beaded Inoculant
5.3 Gel-Based Formulations
5.4 Liquid Inoculant
6 Chemical Amendments for Liquid Biofertiliser
6.1 Glycerol
6.2 Polyvinylpyrrolidone
6.3 Trehalose
7 Factors Affecting the Shelf Life of Azospirillum Bioinoculants
7.1 Moisture Content
7.2 Temperature of Incubation
7.3 Aeration
7.4 Carrier Sterility
7.5 Packaging Material
8 Effect of Azospirillum Isolates on Agricultural Crops
References