Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook: A Manual of Quick, Accurate Solutions to Everyday Pipeline Engineering Problems

Front Cover
PIPELINE RULES OF THUMB
PIPELINE RULES OF THUMB: A Manual of Quick, Accurate Solutions to Everyday Pipeline Engineering Problems
Copyright
Contents
List of Contributors
About the Authors
Preface
1. General Information
System Schematics
Schematic of hazardous liquid pipeline system networks
Schematic of natural gas pipeline system networks
Hydrocarbon classification of gases and products
Typical pipeline construction sequence
U.S. Pipeline Maps
Gas transmission and hazardous liquid pipelines circa 2020
Hazardous liquid pipeline accident heat map, 2010-2020
Gas transmission pipeline incident heat map, 2010-2020
LNG plants connected to natural gas pipeline systems, 2020
CO2-EOR operations and infrastructure in the U.S. circa 2020
Permian Basin CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020
Gulf Coast CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020
Rocky Mountain CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020
Mid-Continent CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020
U.S. Statistics
Annual mileage for hazardous liquid or carbon dioxide systems in the United States, 2004-2019
Annual mileage for natural gas transmission and gathering systems in the United States, 1984-2019
Annual mileage for gas distribution systems in the United States, 1984-2019
Billion barrels delivered by liquids pipeline in the United States, 2014-2018
Liquefied natural gas facilities in the United States circa 2020
Cables and Ropes
Estimating strength of cable
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Rule
Example
Find the working strength of Manila rope
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Example
Example
How large should drums and sheaves be for wire rope?
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Example
Find advantages of block and tackle with pull out friction
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Example
Safe loads for wire rope
Stress in guy wires
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Example
Strength and weight of popular wire rope
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Example
Measuring the diameter of wire rope
Wire rope: field troubles and their causes
Capacity of drums
Belts and Shafts
Determine length of a V-belt
Calculate stress in shaft key
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Example
Estimate the horsepower that can be transmitted by a shaft
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Example
Miscellaneous
Area formula
Surface and volume formula
Recommended drill sizes for self-tapping screws
Determine pulley speed
ASTM standard reinforcing bars
Pressure rating for carbon steel flanges
How to estimate length of material contained in roll
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Example
Convenient antifreeze chart for winterizing cooling systems
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Example
How to determine glycol requirements for desired protection
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Example
Weight in pounds of round steel shafting
Properties of shafting
Steel shaft sizes calculated for strength
Tap drills and clearance drills for machine screws
Common nails
Drill sizes for pipe taps
Carbon steel–color and approximate temperature
Bolting dimensions for flanges
Flange bolt tightening sequence
Steel fitting dimensions
ANSI forged steel flanges
Trenching and excavation safety
What is the difference between an excavation and a trench?
What are the dangers of trenching and excavation operations?
OSHA Excavation Standards
What are the soil classification categories?
Protective Systems
What types of protective systems can employers use to protect workers from cave-ins?
Trenching and Excavation Safety
What other precautions do employers need to take to protect workers from cave-ins?
What are the requirements for safely installing and removing protective systems?
Employer Responsibilities
Reuniting separated mercury in thermometers
Typical wire resistance
How to cut odd-angle long radius elbows
How to read land descriptions
Meandered water and government lots
Reading land descriptions
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Example
Metes and bounds descriptions
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Example
How to read descriptions that show directions in terms of degrees
Size an air receiver for engine starting
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Example
Dimensions of hex nuts and hex jam nuts
Color codes for locating underground utilities
Approximate angle of repose for sloping sides of excavations
Wind chill chart
Fluid power formulas
How is pipeline manufactured?
Steel production
Pipeline manufacturing
Seamless pipe
Welded pipe
Shaping techniques
Welding techniques
How to designate and classify PE piping materials
Standard requirements for PE piping materials
References
Standard PE piping material designation code
Pipeline books published after 2000
2 - Construction
RIGHT OF WAY
Project scoping data worksheet for major facilities
Clearing and grading right-of-way: labor/equipment considerations
Estimating man hours for removing trees
Estimating man hours for removing tree stumps
Clearing and grading right-of-way
Source
DITCHING AND TRENCHING
How many cubic yards of excavation in a mile of ditch?
Shrinkage and expansion of excavated and compacted soil
Ditching and trenching: labor/equipment considerations
Trench excavations
Determination of soil type
Test equipment and methods for evaluating soil type
Bibliography
OSHA trench box requirements
LAYING AND LOWERING
How to determine the degrees of bend in a pipe that must fit a ditch calling for a bend in both horizontal and vertical planes
How to bend a pipe to fit a ditch
Pipe bending computations made with a calculator
Calculate maximum bend on cold pipe
Determine length of a pipe bend
Length of pipe in arc subtended by any angle
Linear feet of pipelay per 10 h day in trench in level, rock-free terrain
Linear feet of pipelay per 10-hour day on waist-high supports on level ground
Allowable pipe span between supports
How engineers make pipe fit the ditch
Source
Reference
How to lower an existing pipeline that is still in service
WELDING
When should steel be preheated before welding?
Welding and brazing temperatures
Mechanical properties of pipe welding rods
Lens shade selector
Reasons for rejecting a pipeweld and ways to reduce reject rates
How many welds will the average welder make per hour?
How much welding rod is required for a mile of schedule 40 pipeline?
How many pounds of electrodes are required per weld on line pipe?
Welding criteria permit safe and effective pipeline repair
References
Cross-country pipeline—vertical down electrode consumption, pounds of electrode per joint
DIRECTIONAL CROSSING
Guidelines for a successful directional crossing bid package
POLYETHYLENE PIPING
Simplified installation guidelines for PE pipe
How to construct a trench for PE piping
3. Pipe Design
Steel pipe design
Properties of pipe
Length of pipe in bends
Calculation of pipe bends
Spacing of pipe supports
Chart of deflection of horizontal pipelines
American standard taper pipe threads (NPT)
British standard taper pipe threads
Normal engagement between male and female threads to make tight joints
Calculate pipe weight, contents, velocity
Formulas and constants for tubular goods problems
How to calculate the contraction or expansion of a pipeline
Estimate weight of pipe in metric tons per kilometer
How to find pipe weight from outside diameter and wall thickness
What is the maximum allowable length of unsupported line pipe?
Identify the schedule number of pipe by direct measurement
Determine buoyancy of bare steel pipe
Determine buoyancy of bare and concrete-coated steel pipe in water and mud
Weights of piping materials
Allowable working pressure for carbon steel pipe
Find the stress in pipe wall due to internal pressure
How to calculate stress in above ground/below ground transitions
References
How to identify the series number of flanged fittings
Dimensions of three-diameter ells with tangents
Spectacle blind thicknesses
Carbon dioxide pipeline design
4 - Electrical Design
Electrical design
Hazardous locations
NEMA enclosure types
Size portable electric generators
Typical wattages for tools and appliances
Knockout dimensions
National Electrical Code tables
Electrical formulas
Full-load currents–single-phase transformers
Conduit size for combinations of cables with different outside diameters
Minimum bending radius for insulated cables for permanent training during installation
Full-load currents–three-phase transformers
Motor controller sizes
Voltage drop on circuits using 600V copper conductors in steel conduit
Determine the most economical size for electric power conductors
How to find the resistance and weight of copper wires
What you should remember about electrical formulas
How to calculate microwave hops on level ground
Quick determination of hp per ampere for induction motors (3 phase) at different voltages
Chart of electric motor horsepower for pumping units
Pumping stations
Floodlighting calculations
Point-by-point method
Beam-lumen design method
Conductor size conversion chart—metric to AWG
Commonly used switchgear device numbers
Bonding the grounding system to building and structure foundations
5 - Hydrostatic Testing
History of gas pipeline pressure test requirements
References
The benefits and limitations of hydrostatic testing
References
Hydrostatic testing for pipelines
Volume of water required to fill test section
Volume of water required at test pressure
How to use charts for estimating the amount of pressure change for a change in test water temperature
Compressibility factor for water
Hydrostatic test records
Pressure testing and recordkeeping requirements – reconciling historical practices with new requirements
References
6 - Pigging, Cleaning & Drying
A brief history of pipeline pigging
Why pig a pipeline?
Cleaning and construction utility pigs
Pipeline dewatering, cleaning, and drying
Reference
Moisture content of air
Commissioning ethylene pipelines
References
Vacuum drying
Pig trap design
7. Control Valves
Control valve sizing formulas
Liquid formulas (noncompressible fluids).
Gas and vapors (other than steam)
Steam formula
Special conditions
Liquids
Flashing service
Viscosity Correction
Gases and vapors
Mixed phase flow
Example
Nomenclature
Source
Sizing control valves for throughput
K factors for various valves and fittings
Examples
Control valve selection
Relief valve sizing, selection, installation, and testing
Sizing
Sonic flow
Subsonic flow
Selection
Installation procedures
Inlet piping
Rapid cycling
Resonant chatter
Discharge piping
Reactive force
Testing
Rupture disk sizing methodologies
Terminology
Sizing methodologies
Rupture disk sizing using the resistance to flow method (KR)
Sample calculation using KR method
Variable orifice rotary control valves
Sizing valves for liquid flow
The piping geometry factor (FP)
The Reynold's number factor (FR)
Choked flow
The cavitation index (Kc)
Anticavitation trim
Flow coefficient (Cv)
Basic valve flow-capacity coefficient (Cv)
The compressibility factor (Z)
Choked flow
Valve outlet velocity
Low-noise trim
Visualize pump and control valve interaction
A The pump and system curves
A.1 Pump curve
A.2 System curve
A.3 Fitting equations to the curves
B Control valve positions for various flows
B.1 Computing the absorbed pressure drop
B.2 Preliminary selection of control valve
B.2.1 Calculating the control valve opening
B.3 Flow rates as percentage of maximum
B.4 Plotting percentage valve opening
C Calculating the control valve gain
C.1 Remember that control valve gain is the ratio of flow rate change to valve position change
C.2 Plot these values from C.1 in a spreadsheet graph (Figure 3)
Nomenclature
References
Avoid cavitation in butterfly valves
Tests performed on 24 in valves
Results obtained for Ci
Comparison with the data
Ci proposed values
Corrections for pressures
How to read a regulator flow curve
The basics
References
Droop, choked flow, and other complexities
Hysteresis
Backpressure regulators and accumulation
Conclusion
Terminology
8. Corrosion and Coatings
Types of corrosion and control methods
Types of corrosion
General Attack Corrosion
Localized Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion
Environmental Cracking
Flow-Assisted Corrosion
Intergranular Corrosion
Dealloying
Fretting Corrosion
High-Temperature Corrosion
Corrosion control methods
Protective Coatings
Cathodic Protection
Materials Selection and Design
Corrosion Inhibitors
Fundamentals of pipeline corrosion
Understanding the process
Source
Uniform vs. localized corrosion
Pitting
Selective Seam Corrosion
Microbial Corrosion
External corrosion
Factors that Affect External Corrosion
Onshore Buried Pipelines
Offshore Pipelines
Methods to Prevent or Mitigate External Corrosion on Buried Pipelines
Coatings
Cathodic Protection
Other Preventive/Mitigative Measures
Monitoring Techniques for External Corrosion
Internal Corrosion
Gas Pipelines
Liquid Pipelines
Preventive/Mitigative Measures for Internal Corrosion
Dehydration
Inhibitors
Coatings
Buffering
Cleaning Pigs
Biocides
Additional Preventive Measures
Preventive/Mitigative Measures for Selective Seam Corrosion
Preventive/Mitigative Measures for MIC on Gas Pipelines
Monitoring Internal Corrosion
Environmentally assisted cracking
Stress-Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
External SCC
Internal SCC
Corrosion Fatigue
Hydrogen Embrittlement
Hydrogen-Stress Cracking
Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
Loss of Ductility
Implications for Pipelines in a National Hydrogen Economy
Sulfide-Stress Cracking
NAPCA specification designations for coal tar enamel coatings
NAPCA standard applied pipe coating weights
NAPCA specifications for pipeline wrappers
How much primer for a mile of pipe?
How much coal-tar enamel for a mile of pipe?
How much wrapping for a mile of pipe?
Estimating coating and wrapping materials per mile of pipe
Primer and coal-tar enamel
Wrappings
Coefficient of friction for pipe coating materials
Definitions
Static coefficient of friction
Test system
Coal tar felt
Thinfilm epoxy
Results
Coal tar to soils
Thinfilm epoxy to soils
Conclusions
Troubleshooting magnesium anode cathodic protection systems
Cathodic protection for pipelines
Galvanic anodes
Source
Reference
Estimate the pounds of sacrificial anode material required for offshore pipelines
Typical anode specifications
Comparison of other reference electrode potentials with that of copper-copper sulfate reference electrode at 25 °C
Chart aids in calculating ground bed resistance and rectifier power cost
How can output of magnesium anodes be predicted?
How to determine the efficiency of a cathodic protection rectifier?
How to calculate the voltage drop in ground bed cable quickly
What spacing for test leads to measure current on a pipeline?
How to estimate the number of magnesium anodes required and their spacing for a bare line or for a corrosion “hot spot”?
How can resistivity of freshwater be determined from chemical analysis?
What will be the resistance to earth of a single graphite anode?
What will be the resistance to earth of a group of graphite anodes, in terms of the resistance of a single anode?
How can the current output of magnesium rod used for the cathodic protection of heat exchanger shells be predicted?
How many magnesium anodes are needed for supplementary protection to a short-circuited bare casing?
Group installation of sacrificial anodes
How to find the voltage rating of a rectifier if it is to deliver a given amount of current through a given ground bed?
Determining current requirements for coated lines
Determine current requirements for coated lines when pipe-to-soil potential values are estimated
HVDC effects on pipelines
The electric field
HVDC effects on a pipeline
Protective system limits
Troubleshooting bed cathodic protection systems
How to control corrosion at compressor stations
Coatings
Grounding
Shielding
Insulation
Water systems
Materials selection
Retirements
Project leak growth
Advances in pipeline protection
Introduction
Source
Pearson survey
Signal attenuation coating survey
Close interval potential survey
Pearson
Signal attenuation coating survey
Close interval potential survey
Case histories
Conclusion
Estimate the number of squares of tape for pipe coating
References
Estimate the amount of primer required for tape
Tape requirements for fittings
Induced AC voltages on pipelines may present a serious hazard
Induced AC mechanisms
Electromagnetic coupling
Pipeline hazards
Resistive coupling
Predicting AC voltages on a pipeline
Mitigation techniques
Personnel safety
Minimizing shock hazards on pipelines near HVAC lines
Corrosion of low-velocity, high water cut oil emulsion pipelines
Significance of fluid velocity
Development of the strategy
Effect of hydrogen sulfide and water chemistry
Validation of the corrosion mitigation strategy
Limitations of the strategy
Other potential applications of this strategy
Pipeline external corrosion direct assessment process
Preassessment
References
Indirect inspection
Direct examination
Post assessment
Results
Severity ranking
Results
Potentials in paved areas
Results
References
Bibliography
9. Gas—General
Boyle’s law
Example
Charles’ law
Example
Avogadro’s law
The ideal gas law
Example
Example
Know the gas laws
Calculate gas properties from a gas analysis
Sample calculation 1
Sample calculation 2
Sample calculation 3
Sample calculation 4
Physical properties of selected hydrocarbons and other chemicals and gases
How to calculate the specific gravity of natural gas
What are the four different types of heating value?
How to calculate the heating value of natural gas
Nomograph for calculating density and specific volume of gases and vapors
Source
Considerations for selecting energy measurement equipment
General methods
How chromatographs work
Sample conditioning system
Gas chromatograph oven
Chromatograph controller
Input/output chassis
How Btu is calculated
Conclusions
References
Facts about methane and its behavior
Properties
Physical
Transport
Thermodynamic
Critical constants
Equations of state
Vapor pressure
Transport properties
Thermal conductivity
Diffusivity
Thermodynamic properties
Heat capacities
Heat capacity ratio
Flammability characteristics
References
Conversion table for pure methane
Introduction to LNG
Introduction
Background
LNG Plant Components
Liquefaction Technology and Cost
Process Similarities
Floating LNG facility
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Glossary of common gas industry terms
10. Gas—Compression
Compressor definitions
Definitions
Performance calculations for reciprocating compressors
Piston displacement
Volumetric efficiency
Cylinder inlet capacity
Piston speed
Discharge temperature
Power
Inlet valve velocity
Estimate suction and discharge volume bottle sizes for pulsation control for reciprocating compressors
Source
Compression horsepower determination
Centrifugal compressors
Generalized compressibility factor
Source
References
Nomograph aids in diagnosing compressor cylinder ills
Reference
Centrifugal compressor performance calculations
Sample performance calculations
Source
Nomographs for estimating compressor performance
Convert SCFM to inlet CFM
Convert weight flow to inlet CFM
Convert weight compression ratio to head
Convert compression ratio to discharge temperature
Horsepower determination
Efficiency conversion
Estimate horsepower required to compress natural gas
Estimate compressor horsepower where discharge pressure is 1000 psi
Rule
Example
Solution
Example
Solution
Calculate brake horsepower required to compress gas
How can we find the size of a fuel gas line for a compressor station?
Estimate engine cooling water requirements
Performance testing guidelines for centrifugal compressors
References
11. Gas—Hydraulics
Gas pipeline hydraulics calculations
Equations commonly used for calculating hydraulic data for gas pipelines are as follows:
Panhandle A
Panhandle B
Weymouth
Nomenclature for Panhandle equations
Nomenclature for Weymouth equation
Sample calculations
Panhandle A
Panhandle B
Weymouth
Source
Equivalent lengths for multiple lines based on Panhandle A
Condition I
Example
Condition II
Example
Example
Determine pressure loss for a low-pressure gas system
Nomograph for determining pipe-equivalent factors
How much gas is contained in a given line section?
How to estimate equivalent length factors for gas lines
Estimating comparative capacities of gas pipelines
Determination of leakage from gas line using pressure drop method
A quick way to determine the size of gas gathering lines
Energy conversion data
How to estimate time required to get a shut-in test on gas transmission lines
How to approximate a maximum acceptable pressure loss for new lines
Estimate pipe size requirements for increasing throughput volumes of natural gas
Calculate line loss using cross-sectional areas table when testing mains with air or gas
Flow of fuel gases in pipelines
Source
Calculate the velocity of gas in a pipeline
Determining throat pressure in a blow-down system
Estimate the amount of gas blown off through a line puncture
A practical way to calculate gas flow for pipelines
Example
Solution
Example
Solution
How to calculate the weight of gas in a pipeline
Rule
Example
Solution
Estimate average pressure in gas pipeline using upstream and downstream pressures
Chart for determining viscosity of natural gas
Fanning equation for gas flow
Multiphase flow
Two-phase horizontal flow
Flow regimes
Inclined two-phase flow
Horizontal three-phase flow
References
Nomograph for calculating Reynolds number for compressible flow friction factor for clean steel and wrought iron pipe
Source
12. Liquids—General
Determining the viscosity of crude
Liquid gravity and density conversion chart
Nomograph for calculating viscosities of liquid hydrocarbons at high pressure
Source
Calculate viscosity of a blend
Viscosity of a mixture of liquids using blending index
Source
Calculate specific gravity of a blend
Convert viscosity units
Convert specific gravity to API gravity
Viscosities of hydrocarbon liquids
Calculate bulk modulus
Source
Nomograph for calculating viscosity of slurries
Source
Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in pipes
Source
Nomograph for calculating velocity of compressible fluids in pipes
Source
Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in pipes
Table gives velocity heads for various pipe diameters and different rates of discharge
Derivation of basic ultrasonic flow equations
How fast does oil move in a pipeline?
Estimate the volume of a pipeline per linear foot using the inside diameter
What is the linefill of a given pipe in barrels per mile?
Estimate leakage amount through small holes in a pipeline
Carbon capture and sequestration processes
Capture
Transportation
Sequestration in Geological Formations
Source
CO2 pipeline infrastructure in the United States
Permian Basin
Gulf Coast
Rocky Mountains
Mid-Continent
Other U.S. CO2 pipeline networks
Source
Effect of variability on CO2 pipeline operation
Vapor-phase transport vs. supercritical transport
Offshore vs. onshore pipelines
Effect of flow rate variability
Capture facilities–power plant load variations
Effects of impurities
Effects of corrosion
Pipeline first fill, start-up, and shutdown procedures
Initial Start-Up
Normal Start-Up
Planned Shutdown
Unplanned Shutdown
Transient Conditions
Complete Depressurization
Design Considerations
Source
13. Liquids—Hydraulics
Marine hose pressure loss
CALM system
SALM system
Tandem system
Multi-point mooring system
Pressure loss in hose string
Pressure drop formula for rubber hose
Source
Example of pressure drop calculations for rubber hose
Formulas for calculating pressure drop and flow rates for pipelines
Shell/MIT
Benjamin Miller
T. R. Aude
Hazen-Williams
Examples
Shell/MIT
T. R. Aude
Benjamin Miller
Hazen-Williams
Using and computing hydraulic gradients
What are equivalent lengths?
Pressure drop in series systems
Pressure drop in looped systems
Calculate pressure loss in annular sections
Calculate pressure and temperature loss for viscous crudes ≥ 1,000 cP
Determine batch injection rate as per enclosure
Pressure loss through valves and fittings
Equivalent Lengths L and L/D and Resistance Coefficient K
Equivalents of Resistance Coefficient K and Flow Coefficient Cv
Nomograph for calculating Reynolds number for clean steel and wrought iron pipe
Reference
Nomograph for calculating pressure drop of liquids in lines for turbulent flow
Source
Drag-reducing agents
Early applications
DRA activity
References
How to estimate the rate of liquid discharge from a pipe
Predict subsurface temperature ranges
To adapt for U.S. work
Sizing pipelines for water flow
How approximate throughput of a line can be estimated from pipe size
Estimate crude gathering line throughput for a given pipe diameter
How to determine head loss due to friction in ordinary iron pipeline carrying clear water
Example
Solution
Remarks
How to size lines, estimate pressure drop, and estimate optimum station spacing for crude systems
How to size crude oil and products lines for capacity increases
What is the hydrostatic pressure due to a column of liquid H feet in height?
How to determine the maximum surge pressure in liquid-filled pipeline when a valve is suddenly closed
Transient pressure analysis
Steady-state versus transient conditions
Fluid properties
Pipe
Pipe environment
Equipment
Initial conditions
Perturbations that cause surges
The fluid–pipe–equipment interaction
Simulation
Hydraulics calculations for multiphase systems, including networks
Flow pattern
14. Pumps
Centrifugal pumps
Speed torque calculation
Variable speed or impeller trim?
Pulsation control for reciprocating pumps
Combating pulsation
The source of fluid pressure pulsations
Major problems caused by pressure pulsations
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Unsteady flow
Noise and vibration
Shaking
Wear and fatigue
Cavitation
Pressure waves summary
Pulsations in suction systems
Cavitation
Suction control
Pulsations in discharge systems
Control of pulsation with dampeners
Dampener types
Appendage dampeners
Flow-through dampeners
The abilities of pulsation dampeners
Performance comparisons
Advantages of bladder type pulsation dampeners
Sizing considerations
Suction pulsation dampeners and suction stabilizers
System data
Piping
Analysis
Sizing of discharge pulsation dampeners
Material and design specification guidelines for pulsation dampeners and suction stabilizers
Conclusion
Rotary pumps on pipeline services
Types of pipeline services
Pumping stations
Types of pumps applied
Specified operating requirements
Pump heating and/or cooling
Pump protection
System considerations
Maintenance
Conclusions
Centrifugal pump parameters and applications
The pump curve
System head curves (Figure 5)
For the pressure component
For the static head component
For the velocity head components
The friction component
Pipe losses
Minor losses
Control valve losses
What can go wrong?
Horsepower
NPSH
No flow
Low flow
How to examine centrifugal pump systems
References
Nomenclature
Estimate the discharge of a centrifugal pump at various speeds
References
How to estimate the head for an average centrifugal pump
Find the reciprocating pump capacity
How to estimate the hp required to pump at a given rate at a desired discharge pressure
Nomograph for determining reciprocating pump capacity
Source
Nomograph for determining specific speed of pumps
Source
Reference
Nomograph for determining horsepower requirement of pumps
Source
How to select motors for field-gathering pumps
How a reciprocating pump works
Plunger or piston rod load
Calculations of volumetric efficiency
Tools for liquid pulsation control, inlet and discharge
Acceleration head
Acceleration head
Stroke
Pump capacity (Q)
Pump displacement (D)
Plunger or piston speed (v)
Pressures
Slip (S)
Power (P)
Efficiencies (n)
Plunger load (single-acting pump)
Piston rod load (double-acting pump)
Calculating volumetric efficiency for water
Calculating volumetric efficiency for hydrocarbons
Understanding the basics of rotary screw pumps
How to evaluate VFD speed on hydraulics
Observations
Progressive cavity pumps
Progressive cavity pump parts
PC pump difficulties
Pump curve accuracy
Pump selection programs
Polynomial regression
Cubic spline regression
Power and efficiency curves
Conclusion
The basics of NPSH and pump operating regions
Industry standards
Pressure and NPSH terminology
Operating regions
NPSH margin and operating region
Reading a centrifugal pump curve
Pump curve, BEP, and system curves
Other pump curve elements
Variable speed pumps
Navigating pump curves: a roadmap to reliability
The head vs. capacity curve
Basic points defined
Shut-off head
Minimum flow
Best efficiency point
Preferred vs. allowable
Runout or end of the curve
Implied or title block information
Brake horsepower
Understanding specific speed and suction specific speed
Pump curve from the manufacturer's perspective
Conclusion
15 - Measurement
Multiphase flow meter
Pipeline flow measurement factors
Liquid measurement orifice plate flange taps
Reference
Mass measurement light hydrocarbons
Pipeline measurement of supercritical carbon dioxide
Master meter proving orifice meters in dense phase ethylene
References
Gas or vapor flow measurement—orifice plate flange taps
Reference
Properties of gas and vapors
Determine required orifice diameter for any required differential when the orifice and differential are known
Estimate the temperature drop across a regulator
Estimate natural gas flow rates
How to estimate the average pressure differential on the remaining meter runs of a parallel system
Sizing a gas metering run
Determine the number of purges for sample cylinders
Find the British thermal units when the specific gravity of a pipeline gas is known
Make quick calculation of the gas flow through orifice meters
How to measure high pressure gas
Four ways to calculate orifice flow in field
Practical maintenance tips for positive displacement meters
Sizing headers for meter stations
Measuring flow of high-viscosity liquids
References
Matching the flow meter to the application
Use liquid ultrasonic meters for custody transfer
Handling entrained gas
Bibliography
How do Coriolis flow meters work?
Proving liquid ultrasonic flow meters for custody transfer measurement
V-Cone® flow meter
References
Sampling and testing program for unrefined petroleum-based products
16 - Instrumentation
Types of control systems
Developments in pipeline instrumentation
Automatic tank gauging systems and proof testing
References
Source
Instrumentation and sensors for automatic tank gauging
Source
17 - Integrity Management
Overview of leak detection technologies
Inspection tools and case studies
Factors to consider when evaluating damage on pipelines
Understanding mechanical damage in pipelines
References
Understanding stress corrosion cracking in pipelines
References
When does a pipeline need revalidation?
Source
References
Modeling pipeline risk assessment
Reference
A risk management tool for establishing budget priorities
Floating roof failure modes and risk
References
Floating roof tanks rainfall risk
References
18 - Tanks
Classification of storage tanks
What is the difference between fixed and floating tank types?
Tank styles and appurtenances
Floating roof applications and components
References
SOURCE
Summary of federal requirements for aboveground storage tanks
Design and containment for atmospheric storage tanks
Overview of petroleum storage tank standards
Tank weight estimation tool using diameter as input variable
How to estimate roof and framing weight for fixed cone tank
Budgetary pricing cost curve of cone roof tanks
How to estimate flow rate from a leaking tank hole
Charts give vapor loss from internal floating-roof tanks
Reference
Estimating the contents of horizontal cylindrical tanks
How to gauge a horizontal cylindrical tank
Correct the volume of light fuels from actual temperature to a base of 60°F
Volume of liquid in vertical cylindrical tanks
Chart gives tank’s vapor formation rate
Tank farm line sizing
Tank farm management
References
Managing oil movement and storage in tank farms
References
Standard construction practices for LNG storage tanks
Choosing the best containment for LNG storage
References
A review of API 2350 overfill protection, 4th and 5th edition
Manual tank gauging procedures
How to apply vapor cloud analysis methodology to tank overfills
References
Reference
Simplified procedure to calculate emissions for liquid organic storage tanks
Calculating tank emissions with BREEZE TankESP
References
19 - Economics
TIME VALUE OF MONEY
Simple interest versus compound interest
Nominal interest rate versus effective annual interest rate
Present value of a single cash flow to be received in the future
Future value of a single investment
The importance of cash flow diagrams
Analyzing and valuing investments/projects with multiple or irregular cash flows
Perpetuities
Future value of a periodic series of investments
Annuities, loans, and leases
Gradients (payouts/payments with constant growth rates)
Analyzing complex investments and cash flow problems
DECISION AND EVALUATION CRITERIA
Payback method
Accounting rate of return (ROR) method
Internal rate of return (IRR) method
Net present value (NPV) method
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
DECISION TREE ANALYSIS
ACCOUNTING FUNDAMENTALS
20 - Cost
COST ESTIMATION
Cost estimation methods, normalization and data
How to use time and location cost indices
How to adjust pipeline construction cost across time
ONSHORE CONSTRUCTION
Onshore pipeline construction process
Onshore pipeline construction cost factors
References
Onshore FERC gas pipeline cost statistics in the United States, 2014–2019
How to estimate onshore pipeline construction cost using unit costs?
How to estimate cost bounds in onshore pipeline construction in the United States?
Onshore gas pipeline construction cost in the United States, 2017–2019
How to develop construction cost models using regression
OFFSHORE CONSTRUCTION
Offshore pipeline construction process
Offshore pipeline construction cost factors
References
Source
U.S. Gulf of Mexico pipeline cost statistics, 1995–2019
Reference
How to estimate shallow water pipeline construction cost bounds in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico using empirical data?
Offshore pipeline construction cost estimation using work decomposition
OFFSHORE DECOMMISSIONING
Offshore pipeline decommissioning process in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico
Offshore pipeline decommissioning cost factors
References
Offshore pipeline decommissioning cost statistics in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico, 1980–2019
Reference
How to estimate the cost to decommission shallow water pipeline in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico?
How to estimate the cost to decommission hurricane-damaged pipeline in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico?
How to estimate deepwater pipeline decommissioning cost in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico?
How to estimate deepwater umbilical, flowline, and riser decommissioning cost in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico?
Reference
Typical workflows for offshore pipeline decommissioning
Reference
GAS COMPRESSION STATIONS
Onshore FERC gas transmission compressor station cost statistics in the United States, 2014–2019
How to estimate gas transmission compressor station cost in the United States?
How to compare gas transmission compressor station cost in the United States?
SCALING RULES
Equipment and process scaling rules
How to estimate equipment cost curves
How to estimate equipment cost using two-factor models
How to estimate equipment cost curves using two data points
TARIFF RATES
What are reservation and commodity charges?
How to calculate firm service with fixed maximum daily quantity and reservation charge?
How is the cost of service formula applied?
How to compute price adjustments in pipeline system quality banks
Reference
21 - Health, Safety and Environment
HEALTH
Grading the nation: state disclosure policies for lead pipes
SAFETY
Trenching and excavation safety
Crane and hoist safety
Electrical welding safety
Tank fire types and causes
Firefighting protection systems for atmospheric storage tanks
Carbon dioxide pipeline safety and integrity
ENVIRONMENT
U.S. natural gas standards and regulations development
What are the key performance indicators in the U.S. pipeline industry?
References
Oil spills in the United States, 2002–2016
Estimating oil spill thickness on water visually
Fast discharge volume calculator for offshore leaking pipeline
How to estimate discharge volume for offshore leaking pipeline (fast method)
Advanced discharge volume calculator for offshore leaking pipeline
How to estimate discharge volume for offshore leaking pipeline (advanced method)
Guidelines on oil characterization to inform spill planning and decision making
Oil spills inland response good practice guidelines
Calculating volatile organic compounds flash emissions from crude oil and condensate tanks at oil and gas production sites
Reference
22 - Specifications
PIPELINE STEEL SPECIFICATIONS
API 5L pipeline specifications
Main differences between API 5L PSL 1 and PSL 2 pipeline
References
Chemical composition for API 5L PSL 1 welded pipe
Chemical composition for API 5L PSL 2 welded pipe
Tensile property requirements for pipe body of seamless and welded pipe for PSL 1
Tensile property requirements for pipe body of seamless and welded pipe for PSL 2
PIPELINE MATERIAL COATING SPECIFICATIONS
External application procedures for plant applied fusion bonded epoxy coatings and abrasion resistant overlay coatings to s ...
External application procedures for coal tar epoxy protective coatings to steel pipe
External application procedures for polyolefin pipe coating applied by the cross head extrusion method or the side extrusio ...
Exterior application procedures for plant applied tape coatings to steel pipe
Suggested procedures for coating field joints, fittings, connections, and prefabricated sections using tape coatings
Suggested procedures for coating field joints using heat-shrinkable materials
External application procedures for hot applied coal tar coatings to steel pipe
FUEL SPECIFICATIONS
Types of fuel specifications
References
Transportation fuel specifications
Fuel quality
Gasoline fuel specifications
Aviation gasoline fuel specifications
Jet fuels specifications
Diesel fuel specifications
PIPELINE PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS
NGL products, propane
NGL products, butane, normal butane
NGL products, butane, refinery grade butane
NGL products, iso-butane
Gasoline, conventional, 85.5 octane (no ethanol)
Gasoline, conventional, 87 octane (no ethanol)
Gasoline, subgrade, 87 octane after 10% ETOH addition
Distillate, #1 diesel fuel, ultra-low sulfur (15ppm max)
Distillate, #1 diesel fuel, ultra-low sulfur (15ppm max)
Distillate, #2 diesel fuel, ultra-low sulfur (15ppm max)
23 - Conversion Factors
Metric conversions—metric to English, English to metric
Density conversions
General liquid density nomograph
Chart gives specific gravity/temperature relationship for petroleum oils
Weight density and specific gravity of various liquids
True vapor pressure of crude oil stocks with a Reid vapor pressure of 2–15 psi
Low temperature vapor pressures for light hydrocarbons
High temperature vapor pressures for light hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon gas viscosity
Viscosity—equivalents of kinematic and Saybolt Universal Viscosity
Viscosity–equivalents of kinematic and Saybolt Furol Viscosity at 122 °F and 210 °F
Viscosity—general conversions
ASTM standard viscosity temperature chart for liquid petroleum products
Pressure conversion chart
Energy conversion chart
Flow conversion chart
Petroleum fuels volume, weight and calorific value factors
Crude oil approximate conversion factors
Refined products approximate conversion factors
Natural gas and LNG approximate conversion factors
Units and calorific equivalents
Weight of water per cubic foot at various temperatures
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
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