Pines and Their Mixed Forest Ecosystems in the Mediterranean Basin

Foreword
Preface
Contents
Contributors
Part I: Evolution, Genetics and Distribution
Chapter 1: Phylogenesis and Evolution of Mediterranean Pines
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Adaptive Evolution Through Time and Space for Individual Species
1.2.1 Phylogeny
1.2.2 Phylogeography and Demography
1.2.3 Adaptation at the Molecular Level
1.3 Evolutionary Processes Based on Phylogeny: Traits and Genes
1.3.1 Evolution of Traits
1.3.1.1 Fire
1.3.1.2 Other Life-History Traits
1.3.1.3 Biotic Resistance
1.3.2 Adaptive Molecular Evolution
1.4 Conclusion and Perspectives
References
Chapter 2: Population Genetics and Genomics of Aleppo Pine (Pinus halepensis)
2.1 Patterns at Full Distribution Scale
2.2 Patterns at the Local Scale
2.3 Conclusions – Perspectives
References
Chapter 3: Conservation and Breeding of Mediterranean Pines
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Genetics of Mediterranean Pines
3.2.1 Gene Flow
3.2.2 Natural Selection
3.2.3 Phenotypic Plasticity
3.2.4 Population Differentiation and Local Adaptation
3.2.5 Within-Population Diversity
3.2.6 Inbreeding
3.2.7 Other Aspects
3.3 Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources
3.3.1 Threats to the Genetic Resources of Mediterranean Pines
3.3.2 Conservation Strategies and Actions
3.4 Breeding in Mediterranean Pines
3.4.1 Breeding Activities and Actions
3.4.1.1 Pinus pinaster
Breeding Program in France (Landes of Aquitaine)
Breeding Programs in Other Countries Within the Natural Range
3.4.1.2 Pinus brutia
3.4.1.3 Pinus halepensis
3.4.1.4 Pinus pinea
3.4.1.5 Pinus canariensis
3.4.1.6 Pinus nigra
3.4.1.7 Pinus sylvestris
3.4.1.8 High Mountain Pines (P. heldreichii, P. uncinata, P. mugo)
3.5 Transfer and Use of Forest Reproductive Material
3.5.1 Regions of Provenance and Basic Material
3.5.2 Seed Sourcing in Mediterranean Pines
3.6 Perspectives and Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 4: Biogeographical Patterns of Local Adaptation and Plasticity of Mediterranean Pines and Their Implications Under Climate Change
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Climatic Niche of Mediterranean Pines
4.3 Environmental Drivers of Genetic Adaptation in Mediterranean Pines
4.4 Phenotypic Plasticity and Genetic Adaptation in Phenotypic Traits at Large Geographical Scales
4.5 Phenotypic Plasticity, Local Adaptation and Distribution Ranges of Mediterranean Pines
4.6 Mediterranean Conifers Under Climate Change: Perspectives and Further Research
References
Chapter 5: Mediterranean Pines as Invasive Species in the Southern Hemisphere
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Human-Induced Range Changes Within the Natural Range of Mediterranean Pines
5.3 The History of Planting Mediterranean Pines Outside Their Natural Range
5.4 The History of Mediterranean Pine Invasions
5.5 The Ecology of Pine Invasions in the Southern Hemisphere
5.6 Impacts of Invasive Pines in the Southern Hemisphere
5.7 Management of Pine Invasions in the Southern Hemisphere
5.8 Conclusions
References
Part II: Ecophysiology of Mediterranean Pines: Resistance to Stress and Perturbation
Chapter 6: What Is a Mediterranean Pine? Physiological Trade-Offs Under Stress and Perturbation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Shade and Drought and Fire Tolerances
6.3 Drought Resistance in Mediterranean Pines
6.3.1 Cavitation Resistance
6.3.2 Water Use and Rooting Patterns
6.4 Photosynthesis and Growth Rates
6.5 The Physiology of Pine-Fire Interactions
6.6 Physiological Adaptations to Stress and Disturbance
6.7 Trade-Offs in Adaptations to Stress and Disturbance
6.8 Drought, Fire and Shade Tolerances as Major Drivers of Pine Species Distributions across Mediterranean Productivity Gradients
6.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Carbon Allocation Dynamics in Mediterranean Pines Under Stress
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Carbon Allocation Across Tree Compartments in Mediterranean Pines
7.3 Carbon Reserves and Their Use in Mediterranean Pines Under Stress
7.4 Carbon Fluxes in Mediterranean Pines
7.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Mediterranean Pine Root Systems Under Drought
8.1 Mediterranean Pines´ Root Structure and Function
8.1.1 Pine Roots and Genetic Adaptations to Drought
8.1.2 Pine Root Functioning and Its Environmental Drivers
8.2 Pine Roots and Forest Management Under Climatic Change
References
Chapter 9: Stress and Tree Mortality in Mediterranean Pine Forests: Anthropogenic Influences
9.1 Introduction
9.2 History of Use and Management
9.3 The Magnitude of the Decline in Mediterranean Pine Forests
9.4 Decline Predisposing Factors and Tree Mortality Mechanisms
9.4.1 Global Change-Related Threats
9.4.1.1 Land-Use change
9.4.1.2 Climate Change
9.5 Mitigation Practices Through Forest Management
Annex
References
Chapter 10: Forest Disease Affecting Pines in the Mediterranean Basin
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Drivers of Disease in the Mediterranean Region
10.3 Different Types of Disease Affecting Pines
10.3.1 Disease as Part of the Natural Dynamics of Forests
10.3.2 Novel Diseases Caused by Invasive Pathogens
10.3.3 Disease Caused by Multiple Biotic Agents Including Pests
10.4 Interactive Factors Leading to Disease
10.4.1 Interaction of Disease with Abiotic Factors
10.4.2 Interaction of Disease with Anthropogenic Activities, Such as Forest Management and Forest Plantations (Native and Exotic)
10.5 Modeling of Forest Disease for Management and Policy
10.6 Research Directions: Particular Issues of Forest Disease Under Dry Mediterranean Conditions
10.7 Management Recommendations for Pines in Semiarid Regions
References
Chapter 11: Genetic and Ecological Basis of Resistance to Herbivorous Insects in Mediterranean Pines
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Main Insect Herbivores of Mediterranean Pines
11.2.1 Defoliators
11.2.2 Stem Borers, Phloem Feeders and Bud Miners
11.2.3 Sap Suckers
11.2.4 Cone and Seed Feeders
11.3 Mechanisms and Strategies Providing Resistance to Insect Herbivores in Mediterranean Pine Trees
11.3.1 Direct Resistance Mechanisms
11.3.1.1 Mechanical Defenses
11.3.1.2 Chemical Defenses
11.3.2 Indirect Resistance Mechanisms
11.3.3 Induced Resistance
11.3.3.1 Induced Direct Resistance
11.3.3.2 Induced Emission of Organic Volatile Compounds (VOCs)
11.3.3.3 Induced Tolerance Responses
11.3.4 Priming of Resistance
11.4 Trade-Offs Associated with Mediterranean Pine Defenses
11.5 Variation in Defensive Investment
11.5.1 Genetic Variation
11.5.2 Environmental Plasticity
11.5.3 Other Sources of Variation
11.6 Concluding Remarks
References
Part III: Pine and Mixed Forest Ecosystems Under Global Climate Change
Chapter 12: Effects of Global Change on Tree Growth and Vigor of Mediterranean Pines
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Study Cases
12.2.1 Defoliation, Growth and Mortality in Mediterranean Pines
12.2.2 Tree Defoliation and Mortality in Spain: A Hotspot of Pine Dieback
12.2.3 Composition and Growth Dynamics of Spanish Pine Forests
12.3 Discussion
12.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13: Mediterranean Pine Forest Distribution: Assessing Vulnerability and Resilience Under Climate Change
13.1 Mediterranean Pine Forests Under Global Change
13.2 Demographic Responses of Pine Forests to Climate
13.2.1 Forest Historical Archives: Accounting for Management Effects
13.2.2 National Forest Inventories: Demographic Data Along Latitudinal Gradients
13.3 Key Ecological Factors at Range Edges
13.3.1 Herbivory as a Biotic Factor Modulating Drought Responses
13.3.2 Frost Tolerance as a Driver of Upper and Northern Limits
13.4 Resistance and Resilience to Drought: Assessing the Capacity to Maintain Function and Structure
13.5 Modelling Pine Ecosystem Dynamics
13.6 Conclusions: Implications for Predicting Potential Changes in Pine Forest Distributions
References
Chapter 14: Carbon and Energy Balance of Dry Mediterranean Pine Forests: A Case Study
14.1 Semi-arid Forests and Their Contribution to the Climate System
14.2 Contrasting Effects of Semi-arid Afforestation on Climate – The Carbon Sink and Energy Balance
14.3 Aleppo Pine – A Dominant Species in Mediterranean Forests
14.4 Yatir Aleppo Pine at the Hot and Dry Timberline
14.5 Eddy Covariance Measurements in Yatir Forest
14.6 Measurements Along the Precipitation Gradient
14.7 Leaf, Branch and Tree Scale and Soil Measurements of Water and CO2
14.8 Carbon Inventory
14.9 Annual Carbon and Energy Fluxes
14.10 Diurnal Dynamics of Carbon and Energy Fluxes
14.11 Inter-Annual Variability and Dependence of Carbon Fluxes on Precipitation and Land Cover
14.12 Flux Variations Along the Rainfall Gradient
14.13 Dryland Forests as Carbon Sinks
14.14 The Paradox of the Yatir Forest Energy Balance and the ‘Convertor Effect’
14.15 Effect of Afforestation on Cooling/Heating of the Atmosphere
14.16 Conclusions
References
Chapter 15: Soil Properties and Biogeochemical Functioning in Mediterranean Pine Forests
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Soil Properties
15.2.1 pH
15.2.2 Cation Exchange Capacity
15.2.3 Organic Carbon
15.2.4 Organic Nitrogen
15.3 Carbon Cycling in Mediterranean Pine Forests
15.4 Nitrogen Cycling in Mediterranean Pine Forests
15.5 The Microbial Community
15.6 Effect of Disturbance on Soil Functioning in Mediterranean Pine Forest
15.7 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 16: Litter Decomposition in Mediterranean Pine Forests Subjected to Climate Change
16.1 Introduction
16.2 General Background on Plant Litter and Its Decomposition
16.3 Litter Decomposition in a Mediterranean Climate
16.4 Microclimate in Mediterranean Forests
16.5 Synopsis of Climate Change Projections for Mediterranean Climate Zones
16.6 Climate Effects on Litter Decomposition in Mediterranean Pine Forests
16.7 Changes in Forest Vegetation as Affected by Climate Change and Management
16.8 Effect of Climate Change-Induced Vegetation Change on Litter Decomposition
16.9 Effects of Forest Management on Litter Decomposition
16.10 Conclusions and Consequences for Mediterranean Pine Forests and Forests in Other Climatic Zones Subjected to Climate Change
References
Part IV: Forest Dynamics, Biodiversity and Biotic Interactions
Chapter 17: Dynamics of Mixed Pine–Oak Forests
17.1 Theories of Forest Dynamics
17.2 Past Dynamics – Formation of Mediterranean Pine and Oak Forests
17.3 Dynamics of Colonization by Pines and Oaks
17.4 Present and Future Dynamics – The Fate of Mixed Forests in Light of Forest Theories
17.5 Succession to Oak Dominance
17.6 Enduring Stability of the Mixed Forest
17.7 Deterioration of Mixed Forests
17.8 Synthesis and Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: Bird Diversity in Mediterranean Pine and Mixed Forests
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Responses to Forest Management
18.2.1 Stand-Level Bird–Habitat Associations
18.2.2 Landscape-Scale Bird–Habitat Associations
18.3 Climate Change: Mitigation Through Forest Management
18.4 Ecosystem Services Provided by Forest Birds
18.5 Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 19: Soil Micro- and Macrofauna in Mediterranean Pine and Mixed Forests
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Technical Restrictions for the Comparative Study of Soil Invertebrates
19.3 Species Richness and Community Structure of Soil Invertebrates
19.4 Temporal Variation in Soil Invertebrate Density and Locomotor Activity
19.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 20: Mycorrhizae in Mediterranean Pine and Mixed Forests
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Mycorrhizal Diversity and Functions in Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems
20.3 Mycorrhizae and Common Stressors in Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems
20.3.1 Drought
20.3.2 Fire
20.3.3 Other Stressors
20.4 Forest Management and Structure in Relation to Ecosystem Services Provided by Mycorrhizal Fungi
20.5 Conclusions
References
Part V: Forest Fire Ecology and Management
Chapter 21: Fire in Mediterranean Pine Forests: Past, Present and Future
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Mediterranean Pines Today
21.3 Pines and Fire in the Mediterranean Region During the Holocene
21.3.1 The Role of Pines in Mediterranean Post-glacial Landscapes
21.3.2 Long-Term Fire Regimes and Fire Ecology: The Sedimentary Record
21.3.3 Long-Term Fire Regimes and Fire Ecology: Dendroecological and Historical Evidence
21.4 Pines and Fire in Recent Times
21.4.1 Current Fire Regime
21.4.2 Burning of Pine Forests
21.4.2.1 Resource Selection Approaches
21.4.2.2 Other Assessments
21.5 Pine Fires Towards the End of the Twenty-First Century in the Context of Climate and Other Global Changes
21.5.1 Projections of Species Distribution Change
21.5.2 Fires in the Future
21.5.3 Conceptual Models
21.5.4 Correlative Models
21.5.4.1 Future Fires and Weather
21.5.4.2 Modeling Fire Frequency and Area Burned
21.5.5 Process-Based Models
21.5.5.1 Landscape Fire Modeling
21.5.5.2 Ecosystem and Fire Modeling
21.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 22: Mediterranean Pines – Adaptations to Fire
22.1 Fire in the Mediterranean Basin
22.2 The Early Evolutionary History of Fire-Adaptive Traits
22.3 Fire Adaptations
22.3.1 Germination and Establishment
22.3.1.1 Temperature
22.3.1.2 Heat Shock
22.3.1.3 Smoke
22.3.1.4 Ash
22.3.1.5 Serotiny
22.3.2 Bark Thickness
22.3.3 Self-pruning (Branch Shedding)
22.3.4 Flammability
22.3.5 Resprouting
22.3.6 Fire-Stimulated Flowering
22.3.7 Cone Opening and Serotiny
22.4 Fire-Adaption Syndromes
22.5 Fire Adaptions of Mediterranean Pines
22.5.1 Pinus halepensis Mill. (Aleppo pine)
22.5.2 Pinus brutia Ten. (Turkish or Calabrian pine)
22.5.3 Pinus pinaster Aiton (Maritime pine)
22.5.4 Pinus pinea L. (Stone pine)
22.5.5 Pinus nigra Arnold (Black pine)
22.5.6 Pinus sylvestris L. (Scots pine)
22.5.7 Pinus canariensis C. Sm. (Canary Island pine)
22.5.8 Pinus heldreichii H. Christ, P. mugo Turra and P. uncinata Ramond ex DC.
22.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 23: Post-fire Soil Erosion – The Mediterranean Perception
23.1 Introduction: Fires as a Geomorphological Agent
23.2 Soil Erosion: Natural vs. Fire-Affected Rates
23.3 Fire Effects on Soils and Erosion
23.4 Factors Controlling Post-fire Erosion Rates
23.4.1 Climate
23.4.2 Landscape Properties
23.4.3 Fire Severity
23.4.4 Spatio-Temporal Scales and Sediment Connectivity
23.5 Discussion: Post-fire Erosion in the Mediterranean
23.6 Conclusions and Research Gaps
References
Chapter 24: Grazing and Understory Fuel Load Reduction: An Exploration Based on Rothermel’s Surface-Fire Model and GPS Tracking of Herds
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Fire Modeling
24.3 The Fire Model
24.4 Fuel Families
24.5 The Fuel-Family-Dependent Input Parameters
24.5.1 Surface-Area-to-Volume Ratio
24.5.2 Particle Density
24.5.3 Fuel Moisture Content
24.5.4 Ovendry Fuel Loading
24.5.4.1 Herbaceous Biomass
24.5.4.2 Litter Biomass
24.5.4.3 Downed Woody Material Biomass
24.5.4.4 Shrub Biomass
24.5.5 Fuel Depth
24.5.6 Biomass Bulk Density
24.5.7 Reduction to a Single Value
24.6 Crown Fire Risks
24.7 Model Results
24.7.1 Single Fuel Family
24.7.2 Multiple Fuel Families
24.8 Grazing
24.9 Discussion
References
Chapter 25: Post-fire Restoration of Mediterranean Pine Forests
25.1 Introduction
25.2 The Scene: Why We Do What We Do
25.3 Burnt Wood as a Biological Legacy
25.4 First Management Actions: Post-fire Salvage Logging
25.5 Chopping, Mulching, and Other Ways to Eliminate Woody Debris
25.6 Planting or Sowing?
25.7 Precision Restoration: The Need to Shift Management Paradigms
25.8 Summary and General Guidelines
References
Chapter 26: Post-fire Regeneration in Yellow Pine and Mixed Conifer Forests of California: Challenges, Tools and Applications for Fire-Adapted Forests
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Need for Better Data and Better Tools
26.3 Predicting Conifer Regeneration
26.4 Thinking Longer Term: Post-fire Forest Restoration Strategies
26.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 27: Remote Sensing Techniques for Monitoring Fire Damage and Recovery of Mediterranean Pine Forests: Pinus pinaster and Pinus halepensis as Case Studies
27.1 Maritime and Aleppo Pine Forests in a World of Increasing Forest Fires
27.2 Evaluation of Fire Damage in Mediterranean Pine Forests by Remote Sensing Techniques
27.3 Remote Sensing Techniques for Monitoring Post-Fire Mediterranean Pine Regeneration
27.4 Conclusions: Wildfire Risk Management for the Reduction of Fire Damage in Mediterranean Pine Forests
References
Part VI: Policy and Ecosystem Services of Mediterranean Pine and Mixed Forest Ecosystems
Chapter 28: Mediterranean Forests and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Relevance of SDGs for Mediterranean Forests
28.3 Connection Between SDGs and Other International Forest-Related Instruments
28.3.1 Global Level
28.3.2 Regional Level
28.3.3 National Level
28.4 Forest-Based Solutions and Enabling Conditions to Address SDGs in the Mediterranean
28.5 Monitoring and Reporting of SDGs in the Mediterranean
28.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 29: Ecosystem Services Provided by Pine Forests
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Ecosystem Services Provided by Pine Forests
29.2.1 Provisioning Services
29.2.2 Regulating Services
29.2.3 Cultural Services
29.3 Ecosystem Services Under Global Change
29.3.1 Fire and Ecosystem Services Provided by Pines
29.3.2 Other Threats to Ecosystem Services
29.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 30: The Cultural Ecosystem Services of Mediterranean Pine Forests
30.1 Introduction
30.1.1 Challenges in Defining the Cultural Significance of an Ecosystem
30.1.2 Assessing Cultural Ecosystem Services: From the General to the Specific
30.2 Mediterranean Pine Forests and Their Cultural Significance in History
30.3 A Contemporary Survey of Cultural Ecosystem Services Around the Mediterranean Basin
30.3.1 Recreation, Tranquility, and Relaxation
30.3.2 Relational Value
30.3.3 Aesthetic Value: The Eye of the Beholder or Shape over Species?
30.3.4 Cultural Services in Mediterranean Pine Forests Relative to Other Landscape Types
30.4 Cultural Ecosystem Services and Aesthetic Preferences in Israel’s Pine Forests
30.4.1 The Politics and Ecology of Israel’s Pine Forests
30.4.2 Socio-ecological Dynamics and Israel’s Pine Forests
30.4.3 Landscape Perceptions and Aesthetic Preferences in Israel’s Pine Forests
30.4.4 Vegetation Composition and Structure Contributing to the Most Preferred Aesthetic Landscapes
30.4.5 Cultural Ecosystem Services in Israel’s Pine Forests – Conflict and Compromise
30.5 In Conclusion: A Holistic Assessment of CES in Mediterranean Pine Forests
30.5.1 Changing Perceptions with Changing Climate
References
Part VII: Afforestation and Forest Management Policy
Chapter 31: Dynamics and Management of Western Mediterranean Pinewoods
31.1 A Brief Historical Overview of Western Mediterranean Pinewoods
31.1.1 Origin and History of Anthropogenic Uses
31.1.2 National Reforestation Plans and Natural Colonization of Abandoned Lands
31.2 The Dynamics of Western Mediterranean Pinewoods
31.2.1 Biotic and Abiotic Drivers of Natural Regeneration Processes
31.2.1.1 Seed Dispersal
31.2.1.2 Seed Predation
31.2.1.3 Seed Emergence and Seedling Survival
31.2.1.4 Initial Seedling Growth
31.2.2 Stand Development and Natural Diversification Processes
31.3 The Management of Western Mediterranean Pinewoods
31.3.1 Management Objectives and Silvicultural Models
31.3.2 Silvicultural Interventions
31.3.2.1 Regeneration Cuttings
31.3.2.2 Tending and Thinning
31.3.2.3 Other Prescriptions
31.3.3 From Multifunctionality to Adaptation: New Challenges in Managing Western Mediterranean Pinewoods
References
Chapter 32: From First Generation of Pine Monocultures to Mixed-Forest Ecosystems: Biotic and Abiotic Determinants of Pine Forests’ Dynamics in Mediterranean Israel
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Regulators
32.2.1 Aridity
32.2.2 Pine Overstory Cover
32.2.3 Grazing
32.3 Pine Regeneration
32.3.1 Aridity
32.3.2 Overstory Cover
32.3.3 Grazing
32.4 Broad-Leafs Reestablishment
32.4.1 Aridity
32.4.2 Overstory Cover
32.4.3 Grazing
32.5 Integrative Discussion
32.6 Management Guidelines for Developing Mixed Forests
32.6.1 Aridity
32.6.2 Overstory Cover
32.6.3 Grazing
32.6.4 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 33: Forest Policy in Israel – From Creation of Forest Plantations to Sustainable Management of Forest Ecosystems
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Forest Management Policy in Israel from the 1920s to the 1990s
33.2.1 Practical Implications of the 1990 Forest Management Policy
33.2.1.1 Site Preparation
33.2.1.2 Planting
33.2.1.3 Thinning and Pruning in Pine Forests
33.2.1.4 Natural Regeneration of Broad-Leaved Species
33.2.1.5 Post-Disturbance Forest Regeneration
33.2.2 Conclusions
33.3 A New Forest Management Policy: From Practical Modifications to the Development of a Strategy
33.3.1 The New Forest Management Policy of Israel (2014): Goals, Principles and Implementation
33.3.1.1 Forestry Goals
33.3.1.2 Principles of Forest Management in Israel
33.3.1.3 Forest Planning and Management
33.3.1.4 Employment of Management Tools
33.3.2 Major Changes Generated by the New IFMP
33.3.2.1 From Forest Establishment to Forest Management
33.3.2.2 From Forest Condition to Forest Goals
33.3.2.3 From Trees to Ecosystems
33.3.2.4 From Maximal Control to Rational Intervention
33.3.3 Conclusions
33.4 Long-Term Forest Planning for Implementing the New IFMP
33.4.1 HaKedoshim Forest as a Model
33.4.1.1 Defining the Current State of Forest Landscape Units
33.4.1.2 Defining Land-Use Designations for Landscape Units in the Forest
33.4.1.3 Multi-Year Work Plan
33.4.2 Pioneer Long-Term Forest Plans – Prominent Trends
33.4.2.1 The Importance of Forests for Provision of Cultural Services, Regulatory Services and Conservation of Unique Natural Assets
33.4.2.2 An Increase in the Structural Complexity of the Forests
33.4.2.3 Variation among Forests of Different Regions
33.4.2.4 The Importance of Long-Term Forest Plans for Making Strategic Management Decisions
33.4.3 Current Status and Future Challenges
33.5 General Conclusions
References
Chapter 34: Water-Based Forest Management of Mediterranean Pine Forests
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Ecophysiology and Functional Characteristics of Mediterranean Pines Related to Water Use in Forests
34.3 Ecohydrology and Water Balance in Pine Forests
34.4 Role of Mediterranean Pine Forests in Soil Water and Deep Drainage
34.5 Vegetation Management and Forest Ecohydrology
34.6 From Plant to Atmosphere and From Atmosphere to Precipitation: The Role of Pine Forests in the Water Cycle
34.7 Projected Changes in the Water Balance of Mediterranean Forests in the Context of Global Change
34.8 Concluding Remarks
References