Photophysics and Nanophysics in Therapeutics

Front cover
Half title
Full title
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
Section 1 - Phototherapeutics
Chapter 1 - Phototherapy: A critical review
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background
1.2.1 Historical perspective of phototherapy
1.2.1.1 Progress in the twentieth century
1.2.2 Overview on various types of phototherapies
1.2.2.1 UVB therapy
1.2.2.2 UVA therapy
1.2.2.3 PUVA therapy
1.2.2.4 Home phototherapy
1.3 Various light sources and methods of phototherapy
1.3.1 Fluorescent tubes
1.3.2 Halogen spotlights
1.3.3 Fiberoptic blankets
1.3.4 Light-emitting diodes
1.3.5 Filtered sunlight
1.4 Applications and limitations of phototherapy
1.4.1 Application in neonatal jaundice
1.4.2 Application for morphea, scleroderma, and other sclerosing skin conditions
1.4.3 Application for cancer
1.4.4 Limitations of home phototherapy and sunlight
1.5 Recent developments and future scopes
1.5.1 The immunoregulatory effects of phototherapy: Possible pathways
1.5.2 Handheld phototherapy: Targeting difficult-to-treat psoriasis in the office and at home
1.5.3 The excimer laser: A potential new indication and a novel dosimetry protocol
1.5.4 Phototherapy and biologic agents: Combination therapy for recalcitrant psoriasis
1.5.5 Future scope
References
Chapter 2 - Phototherapy for skin diseases
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 The epidermis
2.1.1.1 Dermis
2.1.2 The hypodermis
2.2 Major functions of the skin
2.3 Skin diseases and their etiology
2.4 Bacterial skin diseases
2.5 Fungal skin diseases
2.6 Viral skin diseases
2.7 Tropical ulcers
2.8 HIV related skin diseases
2.9 Pigmentation disorders
2.10 Parasitic infections
2.11 Tumors and cancers
2.12 Trauma
2.13 Skin tests
2.14 Heliotherapy
2.15 Naturopathy modalities on inflammation and immunity
2.16 Phototherapy for skin diseases
2.17 Methods
2.17.1 UVB radiations
2.17.2 UVA radiation
2.17.3 PUVA
2.17.4 Diseases and their treatment using phototherapy
2.17.4.1 Vitiligo
2.17.4.2 Atopic dermatitis
2.17.4.3 Psoriasis
2.17.4.4 Impetigo
2.17.4.5 Folliculitis
2.17.4.6 Acne vulgaris
2.17.4.7 Fungal skin diseases
2.17.4.8 Lymphoma
2.17.4.9 Scleroderma
2.17.5 Limitations of phototherapy for skin diseases
2.17.6 Side effects of phototherapy
2.17.7 Recent development and future scope
2.18 Concluding remark
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 3 - Phototherapy: The novel emerging treatment for cancer
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Photophysics and photochemistry
3.2.1 Type I mechanism of photodynamic reaction
3.2.2 Type II mechanism of photodynamic reaction
3.3 Photodynamic targets at the molecular level
3.3.1 Proteins
3.3.2 Photodynamic therapy-induced lipid peroxidation
3.3.3 Photosensitized modification of nucleic acids
3.4 Light source
3.4.1 Near infrared (NIR) light
3.4.2 X-ray
3.4.3 Interstitial light
3.4.4 Internal light
3.5 Changes in cell signaling after photodynamic therapy
3.5.1 Calcium
3.5.2 Lipid metabolism
3.5.3 Tyrosine kinases
3.5.4 Transcription factors
3.5.5 Cellular adhesion
3.5.6 Cytokines
3.5.7 Stress response
3.5.8 Hypoxia and angiogenesis
3.6 Method of excitation for photosensitizing agents
3.6.1 Intermolecular chemically induced electronic excitation
3.6.2 Resonance energy transfer excitation
3.6.3 Two-stage photosensitizer excitation/excitation by radiation energy transfer intermediary
3.6.4 Cherenkov radiation energy transfer
3.7 Photodynamic therapy modifications
3.7.1 Nanotechnology on photodynamic therapy
3.7.2 Application of liposomes and lipoproteins
3.7.3 Photodynamic therapy supported by electroporation
3.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Statement of informed consent
Conflict of interest
References
Chapter 4 - Fundamentals of photodynamic therapy
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Basic concept of photodynamic therapy
4.2.1 Photosensitizers
4.2.1.1 Porphyrin-based photosensitizers
4.2.1.1.1 First generation photosensitizers
4.2.1.1.2 Second generation photosensitizers
4.2.1.1.3 Third generation photosensitizers
4.2.1.2 Nonporphyrin-based photosensitizers
4.3 Working mechanism
4.3.1 Mechanism of cell death following photodynamic therapy
4.3.1.1 Apoptosis
4.3.1.2 Necrosis
4.3.1.3 Autophagy
4.4 Advantages and disadvantages of photodynamic therapy
4.4.1 Apoptosis in photodynamic therapy
4.4.2 Immunological effects of photodynamic therapy
4.4.3 Biological effects of photodynamic therapy
4.4.4 Summarizing the advantages and disadvantages of photodynamic therapy
4.5 Essential wavelength region in photodynamic therapy
4.6 Recent developments in photodynamic therapy
4.6.1 Metal-organic frameworks
4.6.2 Photoactive materials for wavelength response
4.6.3 Photodynamic therapy and hypoxia-controlled nanomedicine
4.7 Future scopes and perspectives
References
Chapter 5 - Photodynamic therapy for cancer treatment
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Background of photodynamic therapy
5.2.1 Origin of photodynamic therapy
5.2.2 Mechanism of photodynamic therapy
5.2.3 Working principle of photodynamic therapy
5.2.4 Mechanism of photodynamic therapy in treatment of cancer
5.2.4.1 Tumor cell destruction
5.2.4.2 Vascular events
5.2.4.3 Immune system mediated photodynamic therapy
5.3 Novel strategies in photodynamic therapy
5.3.1 Metronomic photodynamic therapy
5.3.2 Photodynamic therapy molecular beacons
5.3.3 Nanotechnology in photodynamic therapy
5.4 Role of photosensitizing agents in photodynamic therapy
5.5 Application of photodynamic therapy in treatment of various cancers
5.5.1 Skin tumors
5.5.2 Head and neck tumors
5.5.3 Digestive system tumors
5.5.4 Urinary system tumors
5.5.4.1 Prostate cancer
5.5.4.2 Bladder cancer
5.5.5 Brain tumors
5.5.6 Nonsmall cell lung cancer and mesothelioma
5.6 Recent developments, future scope, and challenges
5.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 6 - Photodiagnostic techniques
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Ionizing radiations
6.2 Fundamentals of light used in diagnostic techniques
6.2.1 X-ray production
6.2.2 X-ray beam intensity
6.2.3 Target material
6.2.4 Voltage applied
6.2.5 X-ray tube current
6.3 Various photo diagnostic techniques
6.3.1 Plain radiography and digital radiography
6.3.2 Computed tomography
6.3.2.1 Computed tomography perfusion imaging
6.3.2.2 Cone beam computed tomography
6.3.2.3 Positron emission tomography in nuclear medicine
6.3.3 Fluoroscopy
6.3.4 Digital subtraction angiography
6.3.5 Digital radiography and picture archival and communication system
6.3.6 Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry
6.3.7 Dual energy computed tomography
6.3.8 Orthopantomography
6.4 Physics of photodiagnostic techniques
6.4.1 Interaction of radiation with matter
6.4.1.1 Attenuation
6.4.1.2 Rayleigh or coherent scattering
6.4.1.3 Compton scattering
6.4.1.4 Photoelectric effect
6.4.1.5 Pair production
6.4.2 Importance of interaction in tissue
6.4.2.1 Differential absorption
6.4.2.2 Atomic number
6.4.2.3 Mass density
6.4.2.4 Photon energy
6.4.3 Picture archiving and communication system
6.4.3.1 Fluoroscopy
6.4.3.2 Orthopantomography
6.4.3.3 Dual energy compute tomography
6.4.3.4 Prospective techniques
6.4.3.5 Retrospective techniques
6.5 Opportunities, challenges, and limitations of photodiagnostic techniques
References
Chapter 7 - The role of physics in modern radiotherapy: Current advances and developments
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Role of radiotherapy in cancer treatment
7.2.1 What is radiotherapy and how it works?
7.2.2 Types of radiotherapy
7.2.2.1 External beam radiation therapy for cancer
7.2.2.1.1 Types of beams used in radiation therapy
7.2.3 Types of external beam radiation therapy
7.2.3.1 Three dimensional conformal radiation therapy
7.2.3.2 Intensity-modulated radiation therapy
7.2.3.3 Image-guided radiation therapy (IGRT)
7.2.3.4 Tomotherapy
7.2.3.5 Stereotactic radiosurgery
7.2.3.6 Stereotactic body radiation therapy
7.2.3.7 Brachytherapy
7.2.3.8 Types of brachytherapy
7.2.4 General indications for the radiotherapy
7.2.5 Intent of radiotherapy treatment
7.2.6 Types of cancer treated using radiotherapy
7.2.7 The role of radiotherapy in cancer control
7.3 Development of radiation physics
7.3.1 History
7.3.2 External radiotherapy
7.3.3 Clinical radiation generators
7.3.3.1 Kilovoltage units
7.3.3.1.1 Grenz-ray therapy
7.3.3.1.2 Contact therapy
7.3.3.1.3 Superficial therapy
7.3.3.1.4 Orthovoltage therapy or deep therapy
7.3.3.1.5 Supervoltage therapy
7.3.3.1.6 Megavoltage therapy
7.3.4 Dose planning
7.4 Recent advancement in radiotherapy
7.4.1 Instigation
7.4.2 Radiotherapy principle and mechanism
7.4.3 Technology development
7.4.3.1 Three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy
7.4.3.2 Intensity modulated radiotherapy
7.4.3.2.1 Segmental IMRT
7.4.3.2.2 Dynamic IMRT
7.4.4 Image-guided radiotherapy treatment
7.4.4.1 Intertreatment motion
7.4.4.2 Intratreatment motion and their detection
7.4.5 Adaptive radiotherapy
7.4.6 Stereotactic radiosurgery and radiotherapy
7.4.7 Particle therapy
7.4.8 Summary
7.5 Radiosurgery for noncancerous tumor and diseases
7.5.1 Introduction
7.5.2 History
7.5.3 Treatment
7.5.4 Systems overview
7.6 Summary and conclusion
References
Chapter 8 - Physics in treatment of cancer radiotherapy
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Physics of radiotherapy
8.1.2 Structure of matter
8.1.3 Atom
8.1.4 Nucleus
8.1.5 Types of radiation
8.1.6 X-rays
8.1.7 Gamma rays
8.1.8 Particulate radiation
8.1.9 Interaction of radiation with matter
8.1.10 Interaction of photon beam (X-rays or γ rays)
8.1.11 Coherent scattering
8.1.12 Photoelectric effect
8.1.13 Compton effects
8.1.14 Pair production
8.1.15 Photodisintegration
8.1.16 Interaction of charged particle
8.1.17 Electron and electron interaction
8.1.18 Electron and nucleus interaction
8.1.19 Interaction of heavy charged particle
8.1.20 Biological effect of radiation
8.1.21 Linear energy transfer
8.1.22 Relative biological effectiveness
8.2 Principle of radiotherapy
8.2.1 Radiotherapy facility
8.3 Traditional facility in treatment of radiotherapy
8.3.1 Superficial therapy
8.3.2 Orthovoltage therapy or deep therapy
8.3.3 Supervoltage therapy machines
8.3.4 Cobalt-60 teletherapy unit
8.3.5 Betatron and microtron
8.3.6 Advance facility in treatment of radiotherapy
8.3.7 Linear accelerator (Linac)
8.3.8 Tomotherapy
8.3.9 CyberKnife
8.3.10 Proton and light ion therapy
8.3.11 Cyclotron
8.3.12 Synchrotron and synchrocyclotron
8.3.13 Add-on facility in treatment of radiotherapy
8.3.14 Conventional simulator
8.3.15 CT simulator
8.3.16 Commissioning of radiotherapy facility and quality assurance
8.3.17 Technique of radiotherapy
8.3.18 External beam radiation therapy
8.3.19 Conventional treatment techniques in EBRT
8.3.20 Three-dimensional conformal radiation therapy
8.3.21 Intensity modulated radiation therapy
8.3.22 Rotational therapy or volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT)
8.3.23 Stereotactic radiosurgery and stereotactic radiotherapy
8.3.24 Image-guided radiotherapy
8.3.25 Internal beam radiation therapy or brachytherapy
8.3.26 Process and treatment of radiotherapy
8.4 Patient preparation and simulation
8.5 Target delineation and treatment planning
8.5.1 Treatment verification and treatment delivery
8.5.2 Dosimetry in radiation therapy
8.5.3 Activity
8.5.4 Particle fluence
8.5.5 Energy fluence
8.5.6 Exposure
8.5.7 Kerma
8.5.8 Absorbed dose
8.5.9 Methods of radiation dosimetry and dosimeters in radiation therapy
8.5.10 Ionization chamber dosimetry
8.5.11 Film dosimetry
8.5.12 Luminescence dosimetry
8.5.13 Thermoluminescence
8.5.14 Optically stimulated luminescence
8.5.15 Semiconductor dosimetry
8.5.16 Physical and clinical dosimetry in radiotherapy
8.5.17 Physical dosimetry
8.5.18 Clinical dosimetry
References
Chapter 9 - Role of carbon ion beam radiotherapy for cancer treatment
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer
9.2.1 Gamma ray therapy
9.2.2 Proton therapy
9.2.3 Ion beam therapy
9.3 Role of carbon ion beam therapy
9.4 Development of TLD materials for carbon ion beam therapy
9.4.1 Lithium-based phosphors
9.4.2 Calcium-based phosphors
9.4.3 Some other phosphors
9.5 Conclusion
References
Section 2 - Nanotherapeutics
Chapter 10 - Nanomaterials physics: A critical review
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Fundamental concepts of nanomaterial physics
10.2.1 Structure sensitive and structure insensitive properties
10.2.2 Phases and their distribution
10.2.3 Defects in body nanomaterials
10.3 Properties of materials
10.3.1 Factors affecting properties of a material
10.3.1.1 Thermal properties
10.3.1.2 Mechanical properties
10.3.1.3 Optical properties
10.3.1.4 Electrical properties
10.3.1.5 Magnetic properties of nanomaterials
10.4 Rationale of nanoparticle physics with diverse functions involving nanomaterials
10.5 Self-assembly of nanostructures
10.6 Clinical applications of nanomaterials physics
10.6.1 Applications of nanomaterials physics in cancer
10.7 Conclusion: Nanotechnology, physics, and clinical outcome
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 11 - Nanotherapeutic systems for drug delivery to brain tumors
11.1 Introduction
11.2 An overview of brain tumors
11.2.1 Malignant brain tumors
11.2.2 Benign brain tumors
11.3 Barriers and challenges in the treatment of brain cancer
11.3.1 BBB as a main hurdle
11.3.2 Chemoresistance and efflux
11.3.3 Tumor microenvironment (TME) dynamics and lack of brain tumor classification based on genetics
11.3.4 Resistance due to cancer stem cells (CSCs) of gliomas and GBM
11.3.5 Lack of proper brain cancer mimicking models
11.4 Conventional vs nanomedicines in drug delivery for brain cancers
11.5 Approaches and mechanisms of nanocarriers for chemotherapeutic drug delivery to brain tumors
11.5.1 Passive targeting
11.5.2 Active targeting
11.5.2.1 Absorptive-mediated transcytosis (AMT)
11.5.2.2 Transporter- or carrier-mediated transcytosis (TMT/CMT)
11.5.2.3 Receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME)
11.5.2.4 Peptide conjugated
11.5.2.5 Small molecule ligand mediated
11.5.2.6 Oligonucleotide (aptamer) mediated
11.5.2.7 Cytokine-targeted nanocarriers
11.5.2.8 Cancer stem cells (CSCs) targeted nanoparticles
11.5.2.9 Dual-targeted/multifunctional nanocarriers
11.5.3 Stimuli responsive nanocarriers systems
11.5.3.1 Photosensitive (physical) drug delivery systems
11.5.3.2 pH sensitive (chemical) drug delivery systems
11.5.3.3 Redox-sensitive nanocarriers
11.6 Types of nanotherapeutic platforms for drug delivery to treat brain cancer
11.6.1 Inorganic (metallic) nanoparticles
11.6.1.1 Gold nanoparticles
11.6.1.2 Carbon nanotubes and nanodots
11.6.1.3 Quantum dots
11.6.1.4 Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs)
11.6.1.5 Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION)
11.6.1.6 Zinc oxide NPs
11.6.2 Lipid-based and polymeric nanoparticles
11.6.2.1 Liposomes
11.6.2.2 Polymeric micelles
11.6.2.3 Nanoliposomes
11.6.2.4 Dendrimers
11.7 Novel therapies to treat brain cancers
11.7.1 Artificial intelligence (AI)-enabled nanocarriers for oncotherapy
11.7.2 Gene-based nanotherapy
11.7.3 CRISPR/Cas 9-associated brain tumor therapy
11.7.4 Nose to brain drug delivery
11.8 Clinical translation of nanotherapeutic systems for brain cancers: From bench to bedside
11.9 Conclusion and future prospects
References
Chapter 12 - Progress in nanotechnology-based targeted cancer treatment
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Tumor microenvironment: Comparison with normal cells
12.2.1 Angiogenesis and endothelial permeability in cancer
12.2.2 Microenvironment pH
12.2.3 Microenvironment temperature
12.3 Nanotechnology-based diagnosis of cancer
12.4 Nanotechnology-based drug targeting strategies in cancer
12.4.1 Passive targeting
12.4.2 Active targeting
12.4.2.1 Tumor cell targeting
12.4.2.2 Tumoral endothelium targeting
12.4.3 Physical targeting
12.5 Progress in nanotherapeutics for treating breast and lung cancer
12.5.1 Breast cancer
12.5.2 Lung cancer
12.6 Future of nanotechnology in cancer treatment
12.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13 - Nanotherapeutics for colon cancer
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Anatomy
13.1.2 Pathogenesis and molecular pathways for CRC
13.1.3 Risk factors
13.1.4 Stages of CRC
13.1.5 Signs and symptoms
13.2 Diagnosis
13.2.1 Endoscopy
13.2.2 Imaging
13.2.3 Laboratory
13.2.4 Pathology
13.3 Current therapies
13.3.1 Conventional treatment strategies
13.3.1.1 Polypectomy and surgery
13.3.1.2 Radiation therapy
13.3.1.3 Chemotherapy
13.3.2 Targeted therapy
13.3.2.1 Immunotherapy
13.3.2.2 Limitations of immunotherapy
13.3.3 Targeted therapies using nanocarriers
13.4 Nanodrug delivery in cancer therapy
13.4.1 Polymers used in formulations of NPs
13.5 Polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs)
13.5.1 Lipid-based nanoparticles
13.5.2 Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs)
13.5.3 Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)
13.5.4 Enteric-coated nanoparticles
13.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14 - Nanoparticles for the targeted drug delivery in lung cancer
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Stages of LC
14.1.2 Current treatment strategies on LC
14.1.3 Novel strategies for LC treatment by pulmonary route of administration
14.1.4 Pulmonary physiology and drug absorption
14.1.5 Role of nanoparticulate technology in the diagnosis and treatment of LC
14.1.5.1 Conventional method of LC diagnosis
14.1.6 Nanocarriers used for the diagnosis of lung diseases
14.2 Nanocarriers in LC treatment
14.2.1 Solid–lipid nanocarriers
14.2.2 Polymeric nanocarriers
14.2.3 Nanoemulsions as potential carrier in LC
14.2.4 Metal-based NPs
14.2.5 Dendrimers-based drug delivery
14.2.6 Target-mediated targeted therapy
14.2.7 Quantum dots (QDs) as a drug delivery system
14.2.8 Bio-NPs for LC
14.2.9 Hydrogel-based drug delivery for pulmonary cancer
14.2.10 Inhalation-based nanomedicine for pulmonary cancer
14.3 Marketed formulation
14.4 Toxicity issues of inhaled NPS
14.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15 - Role of nanocarriers for the effective delivery of anti-HIV drugs
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 HIV life cycle and pathogenesis
15.1.1.1 Viral attachment and binding
15.1.1.2 Reverse transcription
15.1.1.3 Transcription
15.1.1.4 Translation and assembly
15.1.1.5 Budding
15.1.2 Pathophysiology
15.2 Conventional antiretroviral therapy
15.3 Types of nanocarriers for antiretroviral drugs delivery
15.3.1 Pure drug nanoparticles
15.3.2 Polymeric nanoparticles
15.3.3 Dendrimers
15.3.4 Polymeric micelles
15.3.5 Liposomes
15.3.6 Solid lipid nanoparticles
15.4 Nanaotechnological approaches for antiretroviral therapy
15.4.1 Immunotherapy for antiretroviral
15.4.2 Gene therapy
15.4.3 Vaccines
15.5 Nanotechnology for improving latency reservoir
15.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16 - Drug delivery systems for rheumatoid arthritis treatment
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Stages of rheumatoid arthritis
16.1.2 Causes of RA
16.1.3 Symptoms of RA
16.1.4 Pathology of rheumatoid arthritis
16.2 Management of rheumatoid arthritis
16.3 Targeted delivery strategies to inflamed synovium
16.4 Passive targeting
16.4.1 Enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect
16.4.2 Hypoxia and acidosis
16.4.3 Stimuli responsive drug delivery
16.4.4 Angiogenesis
16.5 Active targeting
16.6 Factors for the selection of delivery system
16.6.1 Carrier type
16.6.2 Particle size
16.6.3 Shape
16.6.4 Surface modifications
16.6.5 Prolonged circulation time
16.6.6 Strategies for active targeting
16.6.6.1 Folate receptor (FR)
16.6.6.2 CD44
16.6.6.3 Antiangiogenesis
16.6.6.4 Integrins
16.6.6.5 Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)
16.6.6.6 E-selectin
16.7 Drug delivery vehicles for rheumatoid arthritis
16.7.1 Liposomes
16.7.2 Dendrimers
16.7.3 Nanoparticles
16.7.4 Polymeric micro- and nanoparticles
16.7.5 Macromolecules and the enhanced permeability and retention effect
16.7.6 Arthritis-specific antigens
16.7.7 The complement system
16.7.8 Specific surface receptors
16.7.9 Monoclonal antibodies
16.7.10 mAbs targeted against B cells
16.7.11 mAbs directed against IL-6function
16.7.12 mAb directed against NFKB ligand
16.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17 - Peptide functionalized nanomaterials as microbial sensors
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Conventional techniques for microorganism detection
17.2.1 Pure culture-based protocols
17.2.1.1 Selective approach
17.2.1.2 Enrichment media
17.2.1.3 Selective media
17.2.1.4 Differential media
17.2.2 Immunological techniques
17.2.2.1 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
17.2.3 Nucleic acid-based assays
17.3 Principle behind using biosensors for microorganism detection
17.4 Commonly used biosensing recognition elements
17.4.1 Antibodies as biosensing recognition elements
17.4.2 Aptamers as biosensing recognition elements
17.4.3 Bacteriophages as biosensing recognition elements
17.4.4 Carbohydrates as biosensing recognition elements
17.4.5 Peptides as biosensing recognition elements
17.5 Advantages and challenges of using peptide-based detection of microorganisms
17.6 Properties of nanomaterials making them suitable for construction of microbial sensors
17.6.1 Carbon-based nanoparticles
17.6.2 Metallic nanoparticles
17.6.3 Magnetic nanoparticles
17.6.4 Quantum dots
17.7 Techniques enabling microorganism detection
17.7.1 Colorimetric detection
17.7.2 Fluorescence-based detection
17.7.3 Microscopic techniques
17.7.4 Spectroscopic detection
17.7.4.1 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
17.7.4.2 Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy
17.8 Recent advances in on-site detection of microorganisms using peptide functionalized nanosensors
17.8.1 Bacteria detection
17.8.2 Detection of fungal spores
17.8.3 Virus detection
17.9 Conclusion and future perspectives
References
Chapter 18 - Theranostic nanoagents: Future of personalized nanomedicine
18.1 Introduction
18.1.1 Theranostics
18.1.2 Nanoagents
18.1.3 Nanotheranostics
18.2 Recent approaches versus theranostic nanoagents
18.2.1 Contemporary treatment methods and their drawbacks
18.3 Nanotheranostics and neurological disorders
18.3.1 Blood–brain barrier
18.3.2 Theranostic nanoparticles employed in neurology
18.3.3 Theranostic applications of nanosystems in neurological disorders
18.3.3.1 Glioma (brain tumors)
18.3.3.2 Alzheimer’s disease (AD)
18.3.3.3 Parkinson’s disease (PD)
18.3.3.4 Neurovascular diseases
18.4 Nanotheranostics and rheumatoid arthritis
18.4.1 Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)
18.4.2 Current treatments and their drawbacks
18.4.3 Nanotheranostic approach for rheumatoid arthritis
18.4.3.1 Bioimaging and photodynamic therapy through nanocomposites in RA
18.4.3.2 Magnetic-targeted chemo-photothermal nanotherapy in RA
18.4.3.3 Combined photodynamic and photothermal therapy in RA
18.4.3.4 Nanotheranostic approach for macrophage detection and therapy in RA
18.5 Nanoparticle-based theranostic agents
18.5.1 Iron oxide nanoparticle-based theranostic agents
18.5.2 Quantum dot-based theranostic agents
18.5.3 Gold nanoparticle-based theranostic agents
18.5.4 Carbon nanotube-based theranostic agents
18.5.5 Silica nanoparticle-based theranostic agents
18.6 Theranostic nanoagents: future of nanomedicine
18.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19 - Improving the functionality of a nanomaterial by biological probes
19.1 Introduction to nanomaterials
19.2 Classifications of nanoparticles
19.2.1 Metallic nanoparticles
19.2.1.1 Gold and silver nanoparticles
19.2.1.2 Palladium and platinum nanoparticles
19.2.1.3 Noble metal nanoclusters
19.2.2 Semiconductor quantum dots
19.2.3 Metal oxide nanoparticles
19.2.3.1 Iron oxide
19.2.3.2 Silicon dioxide
19.2.3.3 Titanium dioxide
19.2.4 Organic nanoparticles
19.2.4.1 Carbon allotropes
19.2.4.2 Biopolymeric nanomaterials
19.2.5 Upconversion nanoparticles
19.3 Common conjugation approaches for biomolecule functionalized nanomaterials
19.3.1 Conjugation approaches
19.3.1.1 Encapsulation
19.3.1.2 Noncovalent attachment
19.3.1.3 Covalent and dative chemistry
19.3.2 Functionalization of nanoparticles
19.3.2.1 Small ligands
19.3.2.2 Polymers
19.3.2.3 Biological probes/biomolecules
19.3.2.3.1 DNAzyme and DNA molecule functionalized nanoparticles
19.3.2.3.2 Protein and antibody functionalized nanoparticles
19.3.2.3.3 Glucosamine functionalized nanoparticles
19.3.2.3.4 Peptide/peptidomimetics functionalized nanoparticles
19.4 Basic chemistries behind conjugation approaches
19.4.1 Functional groups and conjugation reactions
19.4.2 Polyhistidine–nitrilotriacetic acid chelation
19.4.3 Biotin–avidin chemistry
19.5 Applications
19.5.1 Detection of DNA, protein, and metal ions
19.5.2 Detection of human pathogens
19.5.3 Enhancement of antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activity
19.5.4 Theranostics
19.6 Conclusion and future perspective
References
Chapter 20 - Nanostructures for the efficient oral delivery of chemotherapeutic agents
20.1 Introduction
20.1.1 Limitations of conventional chemotherapy
20.1.2 Edges of nanoparticles over the other delivery system
20.1.3 Components of nanoparticles as a targeting system
20.1.4 Characteristics features of ideal targeting moieties
20.1.5 The potential of nanocarriers as drug delivery systems
20.1.6 Nanoparticle properties
20.1.7 Cancer therapy: Selective targeting of tissues by nanotechnology
20.2 Nanodrug carriers
20.2.1 Classification of nanoparticles as drug carriers
20.2.2 Micelles
20.2.3 Solid-lipid nanoparticles (SLNs)
20.2.4 Cubosomes
20.2.5 Drug-polymer conjugates
20.2.6 Antibody-drug conjugates
20.2.7 Inorganic nanoparticles
20.2.8 Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
20.2.9 Gold nanoparticles (GNPs)
20.2.10 Porous silicon particles (PSiPs)
20.2.11 Quantum dots (QDs)
20.2.12 Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs)
20.2.13 IONPs
References
Chapter 21 - Photo-triggered theranostics nanomaterials: Development and challenges in cancer treatment
21.1 Introduction of nanomaterials in phototherapeutics
21.2 Types of nanomaterials
21.2.1 Magnetic nanoparticles
21.2.2 Properties and materials for preparation of photo-based nanomaterials
21.2.3 Gold-based nanoparticles
21.2.4 Carbon nanotubes
21.3 Polymeric nanocarriers for photosensitizer/dye encapsulation
21.4 Nanoconstructs for photodynamic therapy
21.5 Photo-triggered theranostic nanocarriers
21.6 Approaches to measure drug release through theranostic nanomedicine
21.6.1 Silicon photonic crystals with pores
21.6.2 Fluorescent nanoparticles
21.6.3 Upconversion nanoparticles
21.6.4 Radioluminescent nanoparticles
21.7 Magnetic resonance imaging for monitoring release of drug
21.8 Photo-triggered theranostics nanomaterials: Principle and applications
21.8.1 Applications of photo-triggered theranostics nanomaterials in cancer treatments
21.8.2 Therapeutic applications of photo-based theranostic nanoparticles
21.9 Opportunities and limitations of nanomaterials
21.10 Preclinical challenges
21.11 Future aspects of nanomaterials in the therapeutics
References
Chapter 22 - Nanocrystals in the drug delivery system
22.1 Introduction to nanocrystals and nanosuspension
22.1.1 Properties of nanocrystals (Colombo, 2017; Mitri et al., 2011)
22.1.2 Nanocrystals and bioavailability
22.1.3 Various methods of characterization of nanocrystals formulations (doi:10.3390/molecules201219851)
22.2 Production methods and technology of nanocrystals
22.2.1 Top down technology
22.2.1.1 Homogenization
22.2.2 Bottom up technology
22.2.3 Top down and bottom up technology
22.2.4 Spray drying
22.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of nanocrystals
22.3.1 Potential advantages and disadvantages of nanocrystals
22.3.2 Disadvantages of nanocrystals
22.4 Pharmaceutical Nanocrystals of API
22.4.1 Case studies of drug loaded in the nanocrystals
22.4.2 Application of nanocrystals-loaded carrier
22.4.2.1 Nanocrystals in oral delivery system
22.4.2.2 Parenteral administration of drug nanocrystals
22.4.2.3 Drug nanocrystals for pulmonary drug delivery
22.4.2.4 Drug nanocrystals for ophthalmic drug delivery
22.4.2.4a Drug nanocrystals for dermal drug delivery
22.4.2.5 Drug nanocrystals for targeted drug delivery
22.5 Conclusion
References
Index
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