Phoma: Diversity, Taxonomy, Bioactivities, and Nanotechnology: The genus Phoma

Foreword
Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: General, Identity and Taxonomy
1: The Genus Phoma: What We Know and What We Need to Know?
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Phoma as a Rich Source of Secondary Metabolites with a Wide Range of Bioactivities
1.3 Phoma as Agents for Biocontrol of Diseases and Growth Promotion of Plants
1.4 Phoma as Plant Growth Promoter
1.5 Phoma Species as Novel Nanofactories
1.6 Conclusions
References
2: Taxonomical Evaluation of Phoma: History of Classification, Current Status and Future Directions
2.1 Introduction
2.2 History of Classification and Morphological Concept of Phoma
2.3 Molecular Phylogeny of Phoma: Towards a Reclassification of the Phoma Complex
2.4 Use of Metabolomics for Chemotaxonomy of Phoma and Allied Genera
2.5 Future Considerations and Conclusions
References
Part II: Diversity, Diseases and Management
3: Phoma on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Diversity of Pathogenic and Saprotrophic Phoma sensu lato on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
3.3 Diversity of Endophytic Phoma sensu lato Species Associated with Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and Their Bioactivity
3.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
4: Diseases of Fruits, Tubers, and Seeds Caused by Phoma sensu lato Species Complex
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Diseases on Fruit, Tubers, and Seeds by Phoma spp.
4.3 Incidence and Losses
4.4 Quarantined Phoma Species and Diagnosis
4.5 Management Strategies
4.6 Conclusions
References
5: Overview of Phoma-Like Fungi on Important Legumes (Papilionaceous Plants)
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Alfalfa (Medicago L.)
5.2.1 Ascochyta medicaginicola
5.2.2 Leptosphaeria pratensis
5.2.3 Leptosphaeria weimeri
5.2.4 Leptosphaeria sclerotioides
5.2.5 Acrocalymma walkeri
5.2.6 Longiseptatispora meliloti
5.3 Beans (Phaseolus L.)
5.3.1 Boeremia exigua
5.3.2 Ascochyta boltshauseri
5.3.3 Boeremia diversispora
5.3.4 Setophoma terrestris
5.3.5 Mycosphaerella phaseolorum
5.4 Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)
5.4.1 Mycosphaerella rabiei
5.4.2 Ectophoma multirostrata
5.4.3 Ascochyta medicaginicola
5.5 Clovers (Trifolium L.)
5.5.1 Ascochyta caulicola
5.5.2 Ascochyta trifolii
5.5.3 Ascochyta trifolii-alpestris
5.5.4 Leptosphaeria pratensis
5.5.5 Stagonospora recedens
5.6 Faba Bean, Broad Bean and Horse Bean (Vicia faba L.)
5.6.1 Didymella fabae
5.6.2 Ascochyta boltshauseri
5.7 Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik)
5.7.1 Didymella lentis
5.7.2 Ascochyta medicaginicola
5.8 Lupines (Lupinus L.)
5.8.1 Didymella pisi
5.8.2 Plenodomus lupini
5.8.3 Phoma schneiderae
5.8.4 Rare or Dubious Phoma-Like Fungi Described on Lupines
Ascochyta lupinicola
Phoma lupinicola
Leptosphaeria pedicularis
5.9 Pea (Pisum L.)
5.9.1 Didymella pisi
5.9.2 Didymella pinodes
5.9.3 Didymella pinodella
5.9.4 Boeremia exigua
5.9.5 Phoma koolunga
5.9.6 Setophoma terrestris
5.9.7 Didymella glomerata
5.10 Vetch Species (Vicia L. spp.)
5.10.1 Septoria viciae
5.10.2 Ascochyta punctata
5.10.3 Ascochyta viciae-villosae
5.10.4 Ascochyta viciae-lathyroidis
5.10.5 Ascochyta viciae-pannonicae
5.10.6 Ascochyta viciae-pisiformis
5.10.7 Peyronellaea lethalis
5.11 Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr)
5.11.1 Didymella pinodella
5.11.2 Boeremia exigua
5.11.3 Setophoma terrestris
5.11.4 Ectophoma multirostrata
5.11.5 Epicoccum sorghinum
5.11.6 Didymella pomorum
5.12 Conclusions
References
6: Diseases of Vegetables Caused by Phoma spp.
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Phoma: The Largest Genus of Agricultural Significance
6.3 Diseases of Vegetables Caused by Phoma spp.
6.3.1 Phoma Disease of Alliaceae (Onion Family) Vegetables
Pink Root
Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
Causal Agent
Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
Disease Cycle
Control
6.3.2 Diseases of Apiaceae Vegetables
Phoma Crown and Root Rot
Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
Causal Agent
Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
Disease Cycle
Control
Phoma Canker
Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
Causal Agent
Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
Disease Cycle
Control
6.3.3 Phoma Disease of Amaranthaceae Vegetables
Blackleg/Phoma Leaf Spot
Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
Causal Agent
Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
Disease Cycle
Control
6.3.4 Phoma Disease of Brassicaceae (Mustard Family) Vegetables
Blackleg/Phoma Leaf Spot/Stem Canker
Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
Causal Agent
Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
Disease Cycle
Control
6.3.5 Phoma Disease of Cucurbitaceae Vegetables
Gummy Stem Blight and Black Rot
Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
Causal Agent
Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
Disease Cycle
Control
6.3.6 Phoma Disease of Fabaceae Vegetables
Root and Foot Rot Complex
Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
Causal Agents
Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
Disease Cycle
Control
Black Spot/Foot Rot Complex of Peas
Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Ranges
Causal Agents
Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
Disease Cycle
Control
Ascochyta Blights
Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
Causal Agent
Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
Disease Cycle
Control
6.3.7 Phoma Disease of Asteraceae Vegetables
Phoma Basal Rot of Lettuce
Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
Causal Agent
Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
Disease Cycle
Control
6.3.8 Phoma Diseases of Solanaceae Vegetables
Phoma Blight/Phoma Rot
Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
Causal Agent
Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
Disease Cycle
Control
Gangrene
Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
Causal Agent
Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
Disease Cycle
Control
6.4 Conclusion
References
7: Phoma Diseases: Identification, Epidemiology, and Strategies for Management
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Identification of Phoma Diseases
7.3 Epidemiology of Phoma Diseases
7.3.1 Phoma spp. Life Cycle
7.4 Phoma spp. Growth and Favorable Conditions
7.5 Phytotoxins
7.6 Management of Phoma Diseases
7.6.1 Cultural Practices
7.7 Resistant Genotypes
7.8 Chemical Control
7.9 Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR)
7.10 Biological Control
7.11 Conclusion
References
8: Major Plant Diseases Caused by Phoma sensu lato Species and Their Integrated Management Strategies
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Leaf Diseases
8.2.1 Leaf Blight
8.2.2 Leaf Spot
8.2.3 Web Blotch
8.3 Stem Diseases
8.3.1 Blackleg
8.3.2 Black Stem
8.3.3 Stem Blight
8.4 Branch Diseases
8.4.1 Branch Blight
8.4.2 Shoot Necrosis
8.5 Vascular Diseases
8.5.1 Mal secco
8.6 Root and Crown Diseases
8.6.1 Brown Root Rot
8.6.2 Pink Root Rot
8.6.3 Root and Crown Rot
8.6.4 Root Canker
8.7 Fruit Diseases
8.7.1 Black Rot
8.7.2 Gangrene
8.7.3 Ripening
8.8 Seedling Diseases
8.8.1 Damping-Off
8.8.2 Premature Ripening
8.9 Conclusion
References
9: Phoma as an Infectious Pathogen in Medical Practice
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Spectrum of Diseases Caused by Phoma spp.
9.3 Diagnosis of Mycoses Caused by Species of the Genus Phoma
9.4 Treatment, Prevention, and Control of Mycoses Caused by Phoma spp.
9.5 Conclusion
References
Part III: Secondary Metabolites and Bioactivities
10: Fruitful Decade of Phoma Secondary Metabolites from 2011 to 2020: Chemistry, Chemical Diversity, and Biological Activities
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Secondary Metabolites of Phoma spp. and Their Biological Efficacy
10.2.1 α-Pyrone Derivatives
10.2.2 Isocoumarins
10.2.3 Anthraquinones and Xanthones
10.2.4 Thiodiketopiperazines
10.2.5 Cytochalasin Derivatives
10.2.6 Diphenyl Ether Derivatives
10.2.7 Furopyrans
10.2.8 Xyloketals and Chromones
10.2.9 Meroterpenoids and Diterpenoids
10.2.10 Alkaloids
10.2.11 Nonaromatic Polyketides
10.3 Miscellaneous
10.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
11: Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Endophytic Phoma spp.
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Endophytic Phoma
11.3 Secondary Metabolites of Endophytic Phoma
11.4 Bioanalytical Techniques to Determine Secondary Metabolites of Phoma Species
11.5 Bioactivity and Biotechnological Significance of Secondary Metabolites Obtained from Endophytic Phoma
11.5.1 Antimicrobial Activity
11.5.2 Anticancer Activity
11.5.3 Anti-inflammatory Activity
11.5.4 Anti-HIV Activity
11.5.5 Angiogenesis Inhibition
11.5.6 Plant Growth Promotion
11.5.7 Bio-herbicide
11.5.8 Biofuel Production
11.6 Conclusion
References
12: The Genus Phoma: A Review of Its Potential Bioactivities, Implications, and Prospects
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Phoma as Biological Control Agent for Weeds
12.3 Phoma as Biological Control Agent for Microorganisms
12.4 Phoma as Biological Control Agent for Viruses
12.5 Phoma as Biological Control Agent for Cancer Cells
12.6 Phoma as Producer of Anthraquinone Pigments
12.7 Phoma as Polysaccharide Producer
12.8 Commercial Scale of Phoma Products: Implications and Prospects
12.9 Conclusions
References
13: Bioherbicidal Activity of Phoma macrostoma
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Importance of Bioherbicides and the Hurdles Encountered in Their Development
13.3 Modes of Action
13.3.1 Plant Colonization
13.3.2 Macrocidins
13.4 Phylogenetics and Differentiation of Bioherbicidal and Non-bioherbicidal Isolates
13.5 Interactions with the Environment
13.5.1 Longevity and Residual Activity
13.5.2 Mobility, Moisture, Soil Type, and Fertility
13.5.3 Temperature
13.6 Host Range
13.6.1 Efficacy on Weeds
13.6.2 Tolerance in Non-weeds
13.7 Phoma macrostoma Bioherbicide Application
13.8 Commercialization of Phoma macrostoma as a Bioherbicide: Status, Barriers, and Potential
13.9 Conclusions
References
14: New Technologies for the Formulation of Secondary Metabolites Produced by Phoma sp. for Biological Control of Weeds
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Biological Control of Weeds
14.2.1 Phoma spp.: Its Role in Biological Control
14.2.2 Fermentation Processes
14.2.3 Emulsions: Concepts, Types, Application, and Formation
Membrane Emulsification
14.3 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
References
15: Biological Management of Plant Diseases by Non-pathogenic Phoma spp.
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Nature and Diversity of Non-pathogenic Phoma spp.
15.3 Non-pathogenic Phoma spp. as a Plant Growth Promoter
15.4 Non-pathogenic Phoma spp. as Biological Control Agents of Plant Diseases
15.4.1 Biological Control of Fungi by Phoma spp.
15.4.2 Biological Control of Bacteria by Phoma spp.
15.4.3 Biological Control of Viruses by Phoma spp.
15.4.4 Biological Control of Protists by Phoma spp.
15.4.5 Biological Control of Peronosporomycetes by Phoma spp.
15.5 Interaction of Phoma spp. and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on Disease Protection
15.6 Factors Affecting the Biocontrol Potential of Phoma spp.
15.7 Mechanisms of Disease Suppression
15.7.1 Direct Protective Activity Against Plant Diseases by Phoma spp.
Antibiosis
Hyperparasitisms/Mycoparasitism
Competitive Root Colonization
15.7.2 Indirect Protective Activity Against Plant Diseases by Phoma spp.
Hormonal Interplay
Induced Resistance
15.8 Activated Signalling and Defence Genes in Phoma spp.-Induced Resistance
15.9 Bioactive Compounds Produced by Biocontrol Agent Phoma spp.
15.10 Conclusions
References
16: Plant Growth-Promoting Phoma spp.
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Existence of Rhizospheric Fungi in the Soil
16.3 Production of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
16.4 Production of Phytohormones
16.5 Suppression of Plant Pathogens
16.6 Colonization of Plant Roots with Phoma sp.
16.7 Conclusion
References
Part IV: Nanotechnology and Fossil Records of Phoma
17: Potential Role of Phoma spp. for Mycogenic Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Phoma as a Ubiquitous Genus
17.3 Isolation, Procurement, and Maintenance of Phoma spp.
17.4 Mycosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles
17.5 Silver Nanoparticle Synthesis Using Phoma spp.
17.6 Mechanistic Approach
17.7 Future Perspectives
17.8 Conclusion
References
18: In Situ Occurrence of Phomites Fritel in the Phyllosphere of Ancient Siwalik Forests of Eastern Himalaya During the Mio-Pleistocene
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Geological Settings of the Eastern Himalaya
18.3 Systematics of Phoma
18.4 Earlier Records of Phoma or Phoma-Like fossils
18.5 Phomites from Siwalik Sediments of Eastern Himalaya
18.6 Palaeoecological Significance
18.7 Host-Phomites Interaction in the Siwalik Forest
References
Index