Petroleum Biodegradation and Oil Spill Bioremediation

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Table of Contents
Glossary
Part I: Crude Oil and Crude Oil Products
1. Crude Oil Composition and Properties
1.1 Types of Crude Oil
1.1.1 Conventional Crude Oil
1.1.2 Heavy Crude Oil
1.1.3 Extra Heavy Crude Oil
1.1.4 Tar Sand Bitumen
1.2 Crude Oil Composition
1.2.1 Elemental Composition
1.2.2 Chemical Composition
1.2.3 Composition by Volatility
1.2.4 Composition by Fractionation
1.2.5 Composition by Spectroscopy
1.2.5.1 Infrared Spectroscopy
1.2.5.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
1.2.5.3 Mass Spectrometry
1.2.5.4 Other Techniques
1.3 Crude Oil Properties
1.3.1 Density and Specific Gravity
1.3.2 Elemental Analysis
1.3.3 Chromatographic Fractionation
1.3.4 Liquefaction and Solidification
1.3.5 Metals Content
1.3.6 Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension
1.3.7 Viscosity
1.3.8 Volatility
1.4 Summary
References
2. Crude Oil Products
2.1 Refinery Products
2.2 Bulk Products
2.2.1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas
2.2.2 Naphtha, Gasoline, and Solvents
2.2.3 Kerosene and Diesel Fuel
2.2.4 Fuel Oil
2.2.5 Lubricating Oil
2.2.6 White Oil, Insulating Oil, Insecticides
2.2.7 Grease
2.2.8 Wax
2.2.9 Asphalt
2.2.10 Coke
2.3 Petrochemical Products
2.4 Occurrence and Uses of Common Hydrocarbon Derivatives
2.5 Refinery Waste
2.5.1 Acid Sludge
2.5.2 Spent Acid
2.5.3 Spent Catalyst
2.5.4 Spent Caustic
2.5.5 Sulfonic Acids
2.5.6 Product Blending
2.5.7 Waste by Process
2.5.7.1 Dewatering and Desalting
2.5.7.2 Gas Processing
2.5.7.3 Distillation
2.5.7.4 Visbreaking and Thermal Cracking
2.5.7.5 Coking Processes
2.5.7.6 Fluid Catalytic Cracking
2.5.7.7 Hydrocracking and Hydrotreating
2.5.7.8 Catalytic Reforming
2.5.7.9 Alkylation
2.5.7.10 Isomerization and Polymerization
2.5.7.11 Deasphalting
2.5.7.12 Dewaxing
2.5.8 Types of Waste
2.5.9 Waste Toxicity
2.6 Entry into the Environment
2.6.1 Storage and Handling of Crude Oil and Crude Oil Products
2.6.2 Release into the Environment
2.6.2.1 Dispersion
2.6.2.2 Dissolution
2.6.2.3 Emulsification
2.6.2.4 Evaporation
2.6.2.5 Leaching
2.6.2.6 Sedimentation or Adsorption
2.6.2.7 Spreading
2.6.2.8 Wind
References
3. Test Methods for Crude Oil and Crude Oil Products
3.1 The Need for Test Methods
3.2 Chemical and Physical Properties of Crude Oil and Crude Oil Products
3.2.1 Adhesion
3.2.2 Biological Oxygen Demand
3.2.3 Boiling Point Distribution
3.2.4 Chemical Dispersability
3.2.5 Density, Specific Gravity, and API Gravity
3.2.6 Emulsion Formation
3.2.7 Evaporation
3.2.8 Flash Point and Fire Point
3.2.9 Fractionation
3.2.10 Leachability and Toxicity
3.2.11 Metals Content
3.2.12 Pour Point and Cloud P
3.2.13 Solubility in Aqueous Media
3.2.14 Sulfur Content
3.2.15 Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension
3.2.16 Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons
3.2.17 Viscosity
3.2.18 Volatility
3.2.18 Volatility
3.2.19 Water Content
3.2.20 Weathering Processes
3.3 Petroleum Group Analysis
3.3.1 Thin Layer Chromatography
3.3.2 Immunoassay
3.3.3 Gas Chromatography
3.3.4 High Performance Liquid Chromatography
3.3.5 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
3.4 Other Analytical Methods
3.4.1 Infrared Spectroscopy
3.4.2 Gravimetry
3.5 Properties and Analysis of Crude Oil Products
3.5.1 Gaseous Products
3.5.2 Liquid Products
3.5.3 Solid Products
References
4. The Nature of Oil Spills
4.1 Environmental Effects of Crude Oil Refining
4.1.1 Gases
4.1.2 Liquids
4.1.3 Solids
4.2 Understanding Spills of Crude Oil and Crude Oil Products
4.2.1 Types of Spills
4.2.2 Composition of a Spill
4.2.3 Dangers of a Spill in the Workplace
4.2.4 Causes of Crude Oil Spills
4.2.4.1 Transportation
4.2.4.2 Errors by Personnel
4.2.4.3 Equipment Breakdown
4.2.4.4 Natural Disasters
4.2.4.5 Acts of Terrorism, War, Vandalism, or Illegal Dumping
4.3 Entry into the Environment and Toxicity
4.3.1 Entry into the Environment
4.3.1.1 Dispersion
4.3.1.2 Dissolution
4.3.1.3 Emulsification
4.3.1.4 Evaporation
4.3.1.5 Leaching
4.3.1.6 Sedimentation or Adsorption
4.3.1.7 Spreading
4.3.1.8 Wind
4.3.2 Toxicity
4.3.2.1 Lower Boiling Constituents
4.3.2.2 Higher Boiling Constituents
4.3.2.3 Wastewater
4.4 General Methods for Soil and Groundwater Remediation
4.4.1 Bioremediation
4.4.2 Containment
4.4.3 Dredging or Excavation
4.4.4 In situ Oxidation
4.4.5 Metals Removal
4.4.6 Nanoremediation
4.4.7 Pump and Treat
4.4.8 Soil Vapor Extraction
4.4.9 Solidification and Stabilization
4.4.10 Surfactant Enhanced Aquifer Remediation
4.4.11 Thermal Desorption
4.5 Remediation Management
References
5. Overview of Oil Spill Clean Up Methods
5.1 Types of Effluents
5.1.1 Gaseous Effluents
5.1.1.1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas
5.1.1.2 Natural Gas
5.1.1.3 Refinery Gas
5.1.1.4 Sulfur Oxides, Nitrogen Oxides, Hydrogen Sulfide, Carbon Dioxide
5.2 Environmental Effects
5.2.1 Gaseous Effluents
5.2.2 Liquid Effluents
5.2.2.1 Naphtha
5.2.2.2 Wastewater
5.2.3 Solid Effluents
5.2.3.1 Residua and Asphalt
5.2.3.2 Coke
5.2.3.3 Particulate Matter
5.3 Oil Spill Cleanup at Sea
5.3.1 Oil Booms
5.3.2 Skimmers
5.3.3 Sorbents
5.3.4 Burning In situ
5.3.5 Dispersants
5.3.6 Hot Water and High-Pressure Washing
5.3.7 Chemical Stabilization
5.4 Methods for Oil Spill Cleanup on Land
5.4.1 Physical Methods
5.4.2 Chemical Methods
5.5 Bioremediation
5.5.1 Importance of Bioremediation
5.6 Issues Related to Use of Bioremediation Technologies
5.6.1 Environmental
5.6.2 Health
5.6.3 Process Evaluation
5.6.3.1 Feasibility Assessment
5.6.3.2 Bioremediation Services
5.6.3.3 Barriers to Commercialization
5.6.3.4 Supporting Research and Development
5.6.3.5 Technical Regulations
5.6.3.6 Economic Assessment
5.6.3.7 Potential for Future Implementation
References
Part II: Bioremediation, Biodegradation, and Site Cleanup
6. Bioremediation and Biodegradation
6.1 The Origin of Bioremediation
6.2 The Mechanism of Bioremediation
6.3 Types of Bioremediation
6.3.1 Natural Bioremediation
6.3.2 Traditional Bioremediation
6.3.3 Enhanced Bioremediation
6.3.4 Monitored Natural Attenuation
6.4 Factors that Affect Bioremediation
6.4.1 Chemistry
6.4.2 Types of Microbes
6.4.3 Types of Contaminants
6.4.3.1 Physical Properties
6.4.3.2 Chemical Properties
6.4.3.3 Site Specific Issues
6.4.3.3.1 Geology of the Site
6.4.3.3.2 Chemistry of the Site
6.5 Site Remediation
6.5.1 Method Parameters
6.5.2 In situ and ex situ Bioremediation
6.5.3 Biostimulation and Bioaugmentation
6.5.4 Miscellaneous Processes
6.5.4.1 Bioslurping
6.5.4.2 Biosparging
6.5.4.3 Biosurfactant Treatment
6.5.4.4 Bioventing
6.5.4.5 Rhizosphere Bioremediation
6.6 Bioremediation of Land Ecosystems
6.7 Bioremediation of Water Ecosystems
References
7. Site Evaluation and the Impact of an Oil Spill
7.1 Site Evaluation
7.1.1 Land Ecosystems
7.1.1.1 Soil Evaluation
7.1.1.2 Physical Properties
7.1.1.3 Chemical Properties
7.1.1.4 Biological Properties
7.1.1.5 Temperature
7.1.1.6 Acidity and Alkalinity
7.1.1.7 Salinity
7.1.2 Water Ecosystems
7.1.2.1 Biodegradation
7.1.2.2 Bioremediation
7.1.2.3 Temperature
7.1.2.4 Effect of Oxygen
7.1.2.5 Effect of Nutrients
7.1.2.5.1 Marine Environments
7.1.2.5.2 Freshwater Environments
7.1.2.5.3 Soil Environments
7.1.2.6 Effect of Spill Characteristics
7.1.2.7 Effect of Prior Exposure
7.1.2.8 Effect of Dispersants
7.1.2.9 Effect of Flowing Water
7.1.2.10 Effect of a Deep-Sea Environment
7.2 Effects on Flora and Fauna
7.2.1 Effect on the Biosphere
7.2.2 Effect on Micro-organisms
7.2.3 Effect on Plants
7.2.4 Effect on Animals
7.2.5 Effect on Humans
7.2.6 Effect on the Economy
7.3 Risk Analysis
7.3.1 Oil Spill Risk Assessment
7.3.2 Guidelines for Oil Spill Risk Assessment
7.3.3 Oil Spill Risk Analysis Model
7.4 The Characteristics of a Spill Response
References
8. Biodegradation of the Constituents of Crude Oil and Crude Oil Products
8.1 Biodegradability
8.1.1 Conditions for Biodegradation
8.1.2 Effect of Nutrients
8.1.3 Effect of Temperature
8.1.4 Effect of Dispersants
8.1.5 Effect of Weathering
8.2 Biodegradation of Specific Constituents
8.2.1 Alkanes
8.2.2 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
8.2.3 Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons
8.2.4 Phenolic Compounds
8.2.5 Chlorinated Compounds
8.3 Biodegradation of Extra Heavy Crude Oil
8.3.1 Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery
8.3.2 Biotransformation
8.3.3 Biodegradation and Bioconversion
8.3.3.1 Biodesulfurization
8.3.3.2 Biodenitrogenation
8.4 Biodegradation of Other Products
8.4.1 Acid Sludge
8.4.2 Spent Acid
8.4.3 Spent Catalyst
8.4.4 Spent Caustic
8.4.5 Wastewater
8.5 Rates of Biodegradation
8.6 Application to Spills
References
9. Methods Used to Determine the Progress of Bioremediation
9.1 The Spilled Material
9.2 Sample Collection and Preparation
9.2.1 Crude Oil and Crude Oil Products
9.2.2 Sample Collection and Preparation
9.2.2.1 Sample Collection
9.2.2.1.1 Volatile Compounds
9.2.2.1.2 Condensate Releases
9.2.2.1.3 Semi-Volatile and Non-Volatile Compounds
9.2.2.1.4 Solids
9.2.2.2 Extract Concentration
9.2.2.3 Sample Cleanup
9.2.2.4 Measurement
9.2.2.4.1 Accuracy
9.2.2.4.2 Precision
9.2.2.4.3 Method Validation
9.2.2.5 Quality Control and Quality Assurance
9.2.2.5.1 Quality Control
9.2.2.5.2 Quality Assurance
9.2.2.5.3 Method Detection Limit
9.3 Sampling in the Field
9.3.1 Sampling Strategies
9.3.2 Acquiring a Representative Sample
9.4 Group Analyses
9.4.1 Gas Chromatography
9.4.2 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
9.4.3 High Performance Liquid Chromatography
9.4.4 Immunoassay
9.4.5 Infrared Spectroscopy
9.4.6 Thin Layer Chromatography
9.5 Gravimetric Analysis
9.6 Microbiological Analysis
9.6.1 Chemical Analysis of Nutrients
9.6.2 Chemical Analysis of Crude Oil and Oil Constituents
9.7 Biomarkers
9.7.1 Types
9.7.2 Commonly Used Biomarkers
9.8 Fractionation of the Spilled Material
9.9 Leachability and Toxicity
9.10 Monitoring General Site Background Conditions
9.10.1 Oxygen
9.10.2 Acidity-Alkalinity
9.10.3 Temperature
9.10.4 Salinity
9.11 Assessment of the Methods
References
10. Recommendations for Oil Spill Prevention and Control
10.1 Refinery Products
10.1.1 Bulk Products
10.1.2 Petrochemicals
10.1.3 Refinery Waste
10.2 Environmental Impact of Crude Oil and Crude Oil Products
10.2.1 Air Pollution
10.2.2 Water Pollution
10.2.3 Soil Pollution
10.3 Pollution Prevention
10.3.1 Options
10.3.1.1 Operating Practices
10.3.1.2 Process Modifications
10.3.1.3 Material Substitution Options
10.4 Adoption of Pollution Reduction
10.5 The Future of Bioremediation
10.5.1 Conventional Bioremediation
10.5.2 Enhanced Bioremediation
10.5.3 Bioremediation in Extreme Environments
10.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bioremediation
10.7 Conclusion
References
Appendix: The Chemistry of Crude Oil and Crude Oil Products
A1 Abstract
A2 Introduction
A3 Crude Oil and Crude Oil Products
A3.1 Chemical Composition
A3.2 Physical Properties
A4 Analytical Techniques for Oil Spill Sample Analysis
A5 Challenges
Further Reading
Conversion Factors
Index
About the Authors