Perspectives on Deep-Sea Mining: Sustainability, Technology, Environmental Policy and Management

Foreword
Preface
Contents
Part I: Evaluation of Deep-Sea Mineral Resources and Their Potential
Chapter 1: Deep-Sea Mining: Historical Perspectives
1 Manganese or Polymetallic Nodules
2 Cobalt-Rich Crusts
3 Hydrothermal Deposits
4 Recent Trends
References
Chapter 2: Approach Towards Deep-Sea Mining: Current Status and Future Prospects
1 Introduction
2 Uses and Potential of Deep-Sea Mineral Deposits
3 Exploration Contracts for Deep-Sea Minerals
4 Quantitative Estimations of Deep-Sea Mining
5 Techno-Economic Assessment of Resource and Exploitation Potential of Deep-Sea Minerals
6 Likely Impacts and Environmental Management
6.1 Likely Environmental Impacts of Deep-Sea Mining
6.2 Studies on Environmental Impact Assessment
6.3 Potential Impacts Associated with Different Deep-Sea Minerals
6.3.1 Likely Impacts Associated with Polymetallic Nodules Mining
6.3.2 Likely Impacts Associated with Hydrothermal Sulphide Mining
6.3.3 Likely Impacts Associated with Ferromanganese Crust Mining
6.4 International Regulations for Environmental Protection
6.5 Mitigation of Environmental Impacts of Deep-Sea Mining
6.6 Approaches to Environmental Management
7 Consideration of Deep-Sea Mining with Respect to Land-Based Mining
8 Future Prospects
9 Conclusions
References
Websites Accessed
Chapter 3: Estimates of Metals Contained in Abyssal Manganese Nodules and Ferromanganese Crusts in the Global Ocean Based on Regional Variations and Genetic Types of Nodules
1 Introduction
2 Methods for Deriving Mean Composition and Tonnage Estimates
2.1 Total Tonnage Calculations for Manganese Nodules
2.2 Total Tonnage Calculations for Ferromanganese Crusts
2.3 Global Mean Composition Calculations and Rationale
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Global Element Composition of Ferromanganese Crusts and Manganese Nodules
3.2 Total and Contained Metal Tonnage Estimates for Ferromanganese Crusts and Manganese Nodules and Comparison to Identified World Terrestrial Resources
3.3 Marine Ferromanganese Minerals in the Context of Ocean Metal Reservoirs
4 Conclusions
Annexure: Definitions
References
Chapter 4: Geological Characterization of Ferromanganese Crust Deposits in the NW Pacific Seamounts for Prudent Deep-Sea Mining
1 Introduction
2 Regional Occurrence and Distribution
3 Geological Background of the Seamount Areas
3.1 Microscopical-Scale Variations Within the Crusts
4 Recent Progress in Genetic Models for Growth Processes and Environments
5 Inferences of Geological Models to Exploration
6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry Microanalysis of Platinum in Hydrogenetic Ferromanganese Crusts
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Materials
2.2 Analytical Methods
2.2.1 Experimental Specification 1
2.2.2 Experimental Specification 2
2.3 Standardization
2.4 Relative Sensitivity Factor (RSF) Calculations
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Results of Experimental Specification 1
3.2 Results of Experimental Specification 2
4 Conclusions
Appendix 1: Calculation of RSF
Appendix 2: Calculation of Conversion Factor
References
Part II: Technology Development for Deep-Sea Mining and Mineral Processing
Chapter 6: A Precautionary Approach to Developing Nodule Collector Technology
1 Introduction
2 GSR’s Seabed Nodule Collector Development Strategy (2015–2021)
3 Seabed Nodule Collector: Propulsion and Nodule Collection
3.1 Propulsion System
3.2 GraviProbe
3.2.1 Dedicated Terramechanical Research Tool: TSTD Patania I (PATI)
3.3 Nodule Collection System (Laboratory Tests)
3.3.1 Design Drivers
3.3.2 GSR’s Nodule Collection System Development: Trade-Off
3.3.3 Nodule Collection System Development
Nodule Collection Head: CFD Simulations
Nodule Collection Head: Laboratory Test
4 Seabed Nodule Collector: Integrated Design
4.1 PVV Patania II: Functional Description
4.1.1 Nodule Collection and Storage System
4.1.2 Propulsion System
4.1.3 Survey and Telemetry system
Survey System
Production System
4.1.4 Dedicated Environmental Monitoring System
4.1.5 Launch and Recovery System
4.2 Sediment Plume Behavior Study
4.2.1 The Far-Field Ocean Hydrodynamic Model
4.2.2 The Near-Field Plume Model
5 GSRNOD21 Campaign: PATANIA II trials in the CCZ
5.1 GSRNOD21 Campaign Objectives
5.2 GSRNOD21 Experiences
5.2.1 Course of Events
5.2.2 GSRNOD21: Main Results
6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Mining and Processing of Seafloor Massive Sulfides: Experiences and Challenges
1 Introduction
2 Seafloor Massive sulfides in Japan EEZ
3 Mining and Ore-Lifting Technology
3.1 Setting of Mining Conditions
3.2 Development of the Mining and Ore-Lifting System
3.2.1 Mining Unit
3.2.2 Ore Lifting Unit
3.2.3 Mining Support Vessel
3.3 Pilot Test of Excavation and Ore-Lifting
3.3.1 Purpose of the Pilot Test
3.3.2 Approaches to Ore-Lifting Test
3.3.3 Excavation and Crushing
3.3.4 Development of Submersible Pump System
3.3.5 Development of Ore-Lifting System
3.3.6 Operability Evaluation and Safety Evaluation
3.3.7 A Preliminary Sea Operation Trial and a Shallow Water Trial
3.3.8 Outline of the Ore-Lifting Test
3.3.9 Results of the Ore-Lifting Test
3.3.10 Summary of Pilot Test
4 Mineral Processing Technology
4.1 Mineral Characteristics
4.2 Development of Mineral Processing System
4.3 Applicability of Zn/Pb Bulk Concentration to the Smelter
4.4 Processing Method of Iron Sulfide Concentration
5 Conclusions
5.1 Mining and Ore-Lifting Technology Development
5.2 Mineral Processing Technology Development
References
Chapter 8: Comparative Advantages of the Mineral Processing of Deep-Sea Polymetallic Nodules over Terrestrial Ores
1 Introduction
2 Polymetallic Nodules Beneficiation
2.1 Deep-Sea Polymetallic Nodules Characteristics
2.2 Presentation of the Manganese Oxide Ore Beneficiation Processes
2.3 Discussion of the Beneficiation Processes for Polymetallic Nodules
3 Polymetallic Nodules Comminution
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Results of the Investigation of the Grindability of the CCFZ Polymetallic Nodules
3.3 Comminution Equipment Wear Rates
3.4 Metal-Specific Energy
4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Exploring the Use of Renewable Resources for Processing of Deep-Sea Minerals
1 Introduction
2 Assessment of Polymetallic Nodules as a Resource to Generate Sustainable Technology
2.1 Resource Characterization: Energy Used, Emissions, and Economic Value
3 Energy Use and Emissions in Nodule Processing
4 Approach for Energy Estimation: Key Process Step Evaluation
4.1 Cumulative Energy Demand for Key Steps
4.2 Cumulative Energy Demand, Nickel Equivalent, and Profitability
4.2.1 Comparison of Process Schemes Based on Identical Nickel Equivalent and Differing Energy Consumptions
4.3 Role of Input Fuel Mix Used for Energy Supply: GHG Emissions
4.4 Role of Chemical Reagents Used in Estimating Process Energy Demand: Importance of Reagent Recycle
5 Energy Sources and Consumption for Sea Nodule Processing Flow Sheet: Core Process Steps
5.1 Approach for Estimating Energy Consumption: Hydrometallurgical and Pyrometallurgical Processes
5.2 Energy Requirements for Hydrometallurgical Operation: Leaching, Including Pressure Leaching and Electro Winning
5.3 Energy Requirements for Pyrometallurgical Process of Nodule Treatment: High Temperature Reduction and Smelting
5.4 Observations on Energy Requirements and Possibilities of Reduction
6 Use of Renewable Energy Options
6.1 Pyrometallurgical Flow Sheet Modifications for Lowering Emissions
6.2 Options for Using Renewable Hydrogen for Reduction: Production Requirements and Cost
6.3 Smelting/Electro Winning Operations with Renewable Energy
6.4 Alternative Technologies for CO2 Reduction Pyro Metallurgical Flow Sheets: Context of Sequestration
6.5 Reuse of CO2 in Flow Sheet
6.6 Hybrid Flow Sheet Options for Pyro Metallurgical Processing: Varied Reductants
7 Hydrometallurgical Flow Sheet Options
7.1 Production of Green Chemicals: Case of Green Ammonia
8 Use of Renewable Energy at Various Stages of Metal Extraction Processes from Polymetallic Nodules: Drawing Industry Parallels
9 Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 10: Reductive Ammonia Leaching Process for Metal Recovery from Polymetallic Nodules: Can There be a Zero Waste Approach?
1 Introduction
2 The Reductive Ammonia Leaching Process
2.1 Leaching, Demanganization and Ammonia Recovery
2.1.1 Treatment of Leach Residue
2.1.2 Recovery of Manganese from Manganese Cake
2.2 Preparation of Copper Cathode and Bulk Sulfide Precipitation
2.2.1 Treatment of Ammonium Sulfate Effluent
Electro-Dialysis
Electro-Decomposition
Lime Boil Method
2.3 Cobalt and Nickel SX-EW
3 Conclusions
References
Part III: Ecosystem Studies, Environmental Monitoring and Management
Chapter 11: Natural Variability Versus Anthropogenic Impacts on Deep-Sea Ecosystems of Importance for Deep-Sea Mining
1 Introduction
2 Background: Setting the Scenes
3 Time-Series Studies in Abyssal and Vent Ecosystems: Some Examples
4 The Natural Dimension
5 The Human Dimension
6 Final Remarks
References
Chapter 12: Comprehensive Understanding of Seafloor Disturbance and Environmental Impact Scenarios
1 Introduction
2 Summary of Research Results So Far
2.1 Experiment Site and Procedure
2.2 Benthic Disturbance and Area Classification
2.3 Sampling Points and Sample Processing
2.4 Chemical Components in the Sediment
2.4.1 Vertical Profile
2.4.2 Horizontal Environmental Decline
2.5 Benthic Organisms
2.5.1 Abundance
2.5.2 Species Diversity
3 Scenario of the Impact on Benthic Organisms and Its Habitats
3.1 Natural Condition
3.2 Short-Term Monitoring Results
3.3 Long-Term Monitoring Results
4 Scenarios of Impact on Species Diversity of Nematodes
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Adaptive Management as a Tool for Effective Environmental Management of Deep-Sea Mining
1 Introduction
2 Adaptive Management for Deep-Sea Mining
2.1 The What
2.2 The Why
2.3 The When
2.4 The How
2.4.1 Set-Up Phase
2.4.2 Iterative Phase
2.5 The Who
3 A Way Forward: A Participatory Systems Modelling Approach
3.1 Systems Thinking
3.2 Participatory Modelling
3.3 Bayesian Networks
4 Decision-Making Under Adaptive Management: Drawing on the New Zealand Experience
4.1 Refusal of Consent
4.2 Consenting with Adaptive Management
4.3 Granting Consent
5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 14: Integrated Environmental Management of the Ecological Impacts from Seafloor Massive Sulphide Mining: Perspectives from the Kermadec Volcanic Arc, New Zealand
1 Background
1.1 Deep-Sea Mining and Seafloor Massive Sulphides
1.2 Environmental Management Frameworks for Deep-Sea Mining
1.3 Mineral Deposits and Licensing on the Kermadec Volcanic Arc
1.4 Kermadec Volcanic Arc Baseline Studies and Environmental Management
2 Kermadec Volcanic Arc Seafloor Community Structure
2.1 Assessing Seafloor Community Structure at Multiple Spatial Scales
2.2 Seafloor Community Results and Interpretation
2.3 Perspectives on Seafloor Community Structure
3 Connectivity of Kermadec Volcanic Arc Seafloor Populations
3.1 Assessing Connectivity of Seafloor Populations
3.2 Seafloor Population Connectivity Results and Interpretation
3.3 Perspectives on Seafloor Population Connectivity
4 Functional Sensitivity of Kermadec Volcanic Arc Seafloor Communities
4.1 A Framework for Assessing Functional Sensitivity to Deep-Sea Mining
4.2 Functional Sensitivity Results and Interpretation
4.3 Perspectives on Functional Sensitivity Frameworks
5 Integrated Environmental Management for Mining Seafloor Massive Sulphides
5.1 Systematic Conservation Planning for Deep-Sea Mining
5.2 An Approach to Systematic Conservation Planning on the Kermadec Volcanic Arc
5.3 Perspectives on Integrated Environmental Management and Systematic Conservation Planning for Deep-Sea Mining
References
Part IV: Techno-Economic Models, Risk Assessment and Payment Regimes
Chapter 15: Analysis of Different Models for Improving the Feasibility of Deep-Sea Mining
1 Introduction
2 Economic Feasibility Analyses for Polymetallic Nodules
2.1 Previous Researches
2.2 Distribution Model of Polymetallic Nodules
2.3 Production Model
2.4 Hydraulic Lifting with Bulk-Scale Tracked Collector
2.5 Mechanical Lifting by Polyethylene Ropes with Small-Scale Collectors
2.6 Economic Factors Applied in Analyses
2.7 Results of Economic Analyses
3 Economic Feasibility Analyses for Seafloor Massive Sulfides
3.1 Previous Researches
3.2 Distribution Model of Seafloor Massive Sulfides
3.3 Production Model with Ore Separation on Seafloor
3.4 Hydraulic Lifting with Loop Self-Standing Risers
3.5 Mechanical Lifting by Polyethylene Rope and Mesh-Bags
3.6 Economic Factors Applied in Analyses
3.7 Results of Economic Analyses
4 Economic Feasibility Analyses for Combined Mining of Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts and Phosphorous Ores
4.1 Previous Researches
4.2 Distribution Model of Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts and Phosphorous Ores
4.3 Production Model with Mechanical Lifting
4.4 Economic Factors Applied in the Analysis
4.5 Results of Economic Analysis
5 Economic Feasibility Analyses for Combined Mining of Polymetallic Nodules and Rare-Earth Element-Rich Mud
5.1 Previous Researches
5.2 Distribution Model of Polymetallic Nodules and Rare-Earth Element-Rich Mud
5.3 Production Model with Pulp-Lifting
5.4 Economic Factors Applied in Analyses
5.5 Results of Economic Analyses
6 Concluding Summary
References
Chapter 16: Conceptual 3D Modeling and Direct Block Scheduling of a Massive Seafloor Sulfide Occurrence
1 Introduction
1.1 Scope of Work
1.2 Software Used
2 Occurrence, Geodata Availability, and Mine Site Characterization
3 Mineral Processing and Mining System
4 Strategic Mine Planning
5 Establishing the 3D Models
5.1 3D Geometric Model
5.2 3D Qualimetric Model
5.3 3D Economic Block Model
6 Optimization Model, Parameterization, and Setting Up the Schedule
7 Results
7.1 TAG Grade Distribution
7.2 Solwara 1 Grade Distribution
7.3 TAG Grade Distribution and High Cu Price Scenario
8 Discussion
9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17: Risk Assessment for Deep-Seabed Mining
1 Introduction
2 Description of Risk
2.1 Environmental Risks
2.2 Private and Societal Risk
2.2.1 Private Risks
2.2.2 Societal Risks
2.3 Legal Risk
3 Environmental Risk Assessments and Plans
3.1 Current Use and Regulation of ERAs
3.2 Environmental Monitoring and Areas of Particular Environmental Interest
3.3 Weight of Evidence Approach for ERA
3.4 Environmental Threshold Levels for Deep-Seabed Mining Projects
3.4.1 Spreading of Particles
3.4.2 Spreading of Contaminants
3.4.3 Light Pollution
3.4.4 Noise and Vibrations
3.4.5 Other Discharges to Water
4 Guidelines/Policy Recommendations
References
Chapter 18: An Evaluation of the Payment Regime for Deep Seabed Polymetallic Nodule Mining in the Area
1 Introduction to the Payment Regime
2 Overarching Goal of the Payment Regime
3 Structure of the Payment Regime
4 Financial Results for the 2%/6% Royalty Payment Regime
5 Sensitivity of ISA Revenues to Different Cost and Price Assumptions
6 Sensitivity of ISA Revenues to Sponsoring State Tax Assumptions
7 Effective Rates of Taxation for Land-Based Mining and DSM
8 Alternative Payment Regimes
9 Conclusion
10 Appendix 1: Mathematical Notation for the Royalty Payment
Appendix 2: Largest Producers of Cobalt, Copper, Manganese and Nickel
Appendix 3: Data Sources for Table 18.2
Appendix 4: Notes on Table 18.2
General Comments
Western Australia
Chile
China
Democratic Republic of Congo
Gabon
Indonesia
Peru
Philippines
South Africa
Russia
Appendix 5: Government Extractive Industry Revenues in Low Income Countries
References
Chapter 19: Sharing Financial Benefits from Deep Seabed Mining: The Case for a Seabed Sustainability Fund
1 Introduction
2 Legal Basis for Equitable Sharing
2.1 Benefit of Mankind
3 Monetary Benefits from Deep Sea Mining
4 Non-monetary Benefits
5 Developing a Formula for Equitable Sharing
6 Seabed Sustainability Fund
6.1 Conceptual Basis
6.2 Potential Drawbacks
6.3 Scope and Purpose
6.4 Governance
6.5 Potential Activities
6.6 Regional Approach
7 Aligning the Seabed Sustainability Fund with the Sustainable Development Goals and ISA’s Strategic Plan
8 Conclusion
Part V: Legal and Socio-Cultural Frameworks
Chapter 20: Achieving Effective Seabed Mining Regulation and Management: A Missing Link
1 Introduction
2 The “Missing Link”
3 Words Matter
4 Confidence-Building in the Tower of Babel
5 Treaties as “Contracts”
6 Unintended Consequences
7 Joint Is Better than Several
8 Equality of Rigor
9 A Promise or a Threat?
Chapter 21: Operational Aspects of Implementing Regulatory Frameworks to Manage Deep-Sea Mining Activities
1 Introduction
2 Establishing the Maritime Spatial Context of the Area and the High Seas
3 Simplified Mining Operations
4 Analysing the Potential Concerns Emerging from Mining Operations
5 Identifying the Potential Hazards and Conflicts Between Mining and Other Maritime Operations
6 Identifying the Potential Marine Environmental Pressures Introduced by Mining Operations
7 Integrating the High Seas Conventions and Agreements with Mining Regulations and Codes in the Area
8 Discussion
9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 22: Traditional and Socio-Ecological Dimensions of Seabed Resource Management and Applicable Legal Frameworks in the Pacific Island States
1 Introduction
2 Socio-Ecological Interconnectivity with the Ocean Realm in the Pacific Region: Main Natural Resources and Activities That Would Be Affected by DSM in the Pacific Region
3 Characteristics of the Main Mineral Resources Targeted by DSM and Vulnerability of Associated Ecosystems in the Pacific Region
4 Traditional Knowledge, Visions and Interests Regarding Marine Resources and DSM in the Pacific Island Countries
5 The Traditional Perspective of Marine Resource Management in the Pacific Island States
6 Integration of Traditional Dimensions into Regulatory Frameworks on Seabed Mining in the Pacific
7 Conclusion
8 Recommended Actions
References
Chapter 23: Safeguarding the Interests of Developing States Within the Context of Deep-Sea Mining in the Area
1 Introduction
2 The Deep-Sea Mining Regime in the Area
3 Main Mechanisms to Protect the Interests of Developing States
4 Current Developments Jeopardizing the Interests of Developing States
5 Safeguarding the Interests of Developing States
5.1 Adapting the Interpretation of Effective Control?
5.2 Creeping National Interests in Domestic Legislation of Developing States?
6 Conclusion
References
International Treaties
ISA Regulations
National Legislation
Jurisprudence
Legal Doctrine
ISA Documents
Other Sources
Index