Perovskite Solar Cells: Materials, Processes, and Devices

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Title Page
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Contents
Foreword
Chapter 1 Chemical Processing of Mixed‐Cation Hybrid Perovskites: Stabilizing Effects of Configurational Entropy
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Stability Issues of Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Perovskites
1.2 Crystal Structure of Perovskites
1.2.1 Goldschmidt Tolerance Factor for 3D Structure
1.2.2 Octahedral Factor
1.2.3 Role of A‐Site Cation
1.2.4 Theoretical Calculations: Molecular Dynamics of A‐Site Cation
1.2.5 Entropy of Mixing: Configurational Effects in Mixed‐Cation Perovskites
1.3 Multiple A‐Site Cation Perovskites
1.3.1 FA+/MA+ Alloying for Higher Phase Stability and Photovoltaic Efficiency
1.3.2 Cesium Inclusion for Thermal Stability
1.3.3 Rb+ Small‐Cation Influence on Perovskite Structure for Thermal Stability
1.3.4 Guanidinium Large‐Cation Influence on Perovskite Structure for Stability
1.3.5 Triple‐ and Quadruple‐Cation Hybrid Perovskites for Stability and Optimum Performance
1.3.6 Larger Organic Cations: Reducing Dimensionality for Improved Thermal Stability
1.4 Conclusion and Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 2 Flash Infrared Annealing for Processing of Perovskite Solar Cells
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Perovskite Crystal Nucleation and Growth from Solution
2.2.1 The Antisolvent Dripping Method
2.2.2 Thermodynamics of Nucleation and Crystal Growth
2.2.3 Kinetic Process for Rapid Thermal Growth
2.3 Rapid Thermal Annealing
2.3.1 The FIRA Method
2.3.2 FIRA and Antisolvent
2.3.3 Perovskite Film Crystallization for a Single IR Pulse
2.3.4 Perovskite Crystallization with Pulse Duration
2.3.5 Pulsed FIRA Method for Inorganic Perovskite Composition
2.3.6 Warmed‐Pulsed FIRA Method
2.3.7 Crystallization Behavior of Mixed Perovskite Solutions
2.4 Structural Analysis of FIRA‐Annealed Perovskite Films with Variable Pulse Time
2.4.1 Planar and Mesoporous Substrates
2.4.2 Crystal Structure Analysis
2.4.3 Structure of the Intermediate Phases
2.4.4 Internal Crystal Domain Structure
2.5 A Cost‐Effective and Environmentally Friendly Method
2.5.1 Life‐Cycle Assessment (LCA) of the Perovskite Film Synthesis Methods
2.5.2 Relative Cost and Environmental Impact of the AS and FIRA Methods
2.6 Application for MAPI3 Perovskite Solar Cells
2.6.1 Single IR Pulse and MAPbI3 Perovskite Composition
2.6.2 Large‐Area Devices
2.7 Planar Devices Architecture and Mixed Perovskite Composition
2.7.1 Thin Film Analysis
2.7.2 PV Performance and Electronic Characteristic of the Devices
2.8 Pulsed FIRA for Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells
2.8.1 Thin Film Analysis
2.8.2 PV Performance
2.9 Rapid Manufacturing of PSCs with an Adapted Perovskite Chemical Composition
2.9.1 Rapid Annealed TiO2 Mesoscopic Film
2.9.2 FCG Perovskite Stabilized with TBAI
2.9.3 PV Performance of the Manufactured PSCs
2.10 Outlook and Technical Details
2.10.1 Optimization of FIRA Process for Tandem Solar Cells
2.10.2 Automatic Roll‐to‐Roll System for the FIRA Manufacture of Perovskite Solar Cells
2.10.3 Electronic Setup
2.10.4 LabView Interface
2.11 Experimental Methods
2.11.1 Manufacture of Perovskite Solar Cells
2.11.2 Perovskite Solution Preparation
2.11.3 Antisolvent Method
2.11.4 FIRA Method
2.11.5 HTM Deposition and Back Contact Evaporation
2.11.6 Device Characterization
2.11.7 Material Characterization
2.11.8 Temperature Measurement
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 3 Passivation of Hybrid/Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Types of Passivation
3.1.1.1 Bulk Passivation
3.1.1.2 Surface Passivation
3.1.2 Passivating Materials
3.1.2.1 Metal Halides
3.1.2.2 Organic Acids (COOH, SOOH, and POOH)
3.1.2.3 Organosulfur Compound
3.1.2.4 Amines
3.1.2.5 Graphene
3.1.2.6 Metal Oxides
3.1.2.7 Organic Halides
3.1.2.8 Quantum Dots
3.1.2.9 Polymers
3.1.2.10 Zwitterions
3.2 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4 Tuning Interfacial Effects in Hybrid Perovskite Solar Cells
4.1 Strategies for Interfacial Deposition and Analysis
4.1.1 Tailoring the PS Properties and Microstructural Interface Through Solvent Engineering
4.1.2 Tailoring the PS Properties and Microstructural Interface Through Non‐solvent Methods
4.2 Defect Formation in PS Films and Interfaces
4.2.1 Defect Formation in the PS Bulk and at the Surface During Film Crystallization
4.2.2 Defect Formation and Dynamics of PSC Under Working Conditions
4.3 Passivation Strategies of PS
4.4 Measuring and Tuning the Work Function and Surface Potential in PSC
4.5 Tuning the Wettability and Compatibility Between Layers
4.6 Effect on Device Efficiency and Lifetime
4.6.1 Moisture Effects on PS Films and PSC
4.6.2 Photoinduced Degradation of PS Films and PSC
4.6.3 Thermal Degradation of PS Films and PSC
4.6.4 Other Sources of Degradation in PSC
4.7 Conclusions and Prospects
References
Chapter 5 All‐inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Basic Knowledge of All‐inorganic Pero‐SCs
5.2.1 Crystalline Structure
5.2.2 Stability
5.2.2.1 Thermal Stability
5.2.2.2 Phase Stability
5.2.2.3 Light Stability
5.2.3 Working Principle
5.3 Lead‐Based Inorganic Pero‐SCs
5.3.1 CsPbI3
5.3.1.1 Additive Engineering
5.3.1.2 Organic Compound Treatment
5.3.1.3 Crystal Size Reduction and Morphology Optimization
5.3.1.4 Current Density Increase
5.3.2 CsPbI2Br
5.3.2.1 Fabrication Methods
5.3.2.2 Ionic Incorporation
5.3.2.3 Interface Engineering
5.3.3 CsPbIBr2
5.3.3.1 Crystal Growth
5.3.3.2 Ionic Incorporation
5.3.3.3 Interface Engineering
5.3.4 CsPbBr3
5.3.4.1 Fabrication Method
5.3.4.2 Ionic Incorporation
5.3.4.3 Interface Engineering
5.4 Tin‐Based Inorganic Pero‐SCs
5.4.1 CsSnI3
5.4.1.1 Fabrication Methods
5.4.1.2 Additive Engineering
5.4.1.3 Substrate Control
5.4.2 CsSnIxBr3−x
5.5 Other Inorganic Pero‐SCs
5.5.1 Ge‐Based Inorganic Pero‐SCs
5.5.2 Sb‐Based Inorganic Pero‐SCs
5.5.3 Bi‐Based Inorganic Pero‐SCs
5.5.3.1 A3B2I9 Structure
5.5.3.2 Other Structures
5.5.4 Double B site Cation Perovskite
5.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 Tin Halide Perovskite Solar Cells
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Why Tin Halide Perovskites?
6.2.1 Tin as the Sole Viable Alternative
6.2.2 Favorable Optoelectronic Properties of Tin Perovskites
6.2.2.1 Low Bandgap
6.2.2.2 High Charge Carrier Mobility
6.2.2.3 Similar Properties with Lead Perovskites
6.3 Concerns About Tin‐Based Perovskites
6.3.1 Severe Non‐radiative Recombination
6.3.2 Poor Stability
6.4 Control of Hole Doping
6.4.1 Sn2+ Compensation/Necessity of Adding SnF2
6.4.2 Additives to Improve SnF2 Dispersion
6.4.3 Elimination of Sn4+ Impurities
6.4.3.1 SnI2 Purification
6.4.3.2 Reaction of Sn Powder with Sn4+ Residuals
6.4.3.3 Addition of Reducing Agents
6.5 Films Deposition
6.5.1 Crystallization Tuning
6.5.1.1 Solvent Engineering
6.5.1.2 Additives to Slow Down Crystallization Kinetics
6.5.2 Posttreatment Strategies/Surface Trap Passivation
6.6 Contacts/Interface Engineering
6.7 Ongoing Challenges
6.7.1 Efficiency
6.7.2 Stability
6.7.3 Performance over the S–Q Limit/Toward Multijunction Solar Cells
6.7.4 Sustainability
6.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 7 Low‐Temperature and Facile Solution‐Processed Two‐Dimensional Materials as Electron Transport Layer for Highly Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Charge Transport in Perovskite Solar Cells
7.3 Brief Development of Perovskite Solar Cells
7.4 Functions and Requirements of Electron Transport Layer
7.5 Features and Advantages of Two‐Dimensional Electron Transport Materials
7.6 Van der Waals Heterojunctions
7.7 Quantum Confinement Effect in Two‐Dimensional Electron Transport Materials and Its Application
7.8 Other Physical Properties of Two‐Dimensional Electron Transport Materials
7.9 Synthesis of Various Two‐Dimensional Materials
7.10 Application of Two‐Dimensional Material as an Electron Transport Layer in Perovskite Solar Cells
7.11 Conclusion and Outlook
References
Chapter 8 Metal Oxides in Stable and Flexible Halide Perovskite Solar Cells: Toward Self‐Powered Internet of Things
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Metal Oxides in Normal (n–i–p), Inverted (p–i–n) and “Oxide‐Sandwich” Halide Perovskite Solar Cells
8.3 Mesoporous Metal Oxide Bilayers in Highly Stable Carbon‐Based Perovskite Solar Cells
8.4 Solution‐Processable Metal Oxides for Flexible Halide Perovskite Solar Cells
8.5 Characterization of PSC by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
8.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 9 Electron Transport Layers in Perovskite Solar Cells
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Requirements of Ideal Electron Transport Layers (ETL)
9.3 Overview of Electron Transport Materials
9.3.1 Metal Oxide Electron Transport Materials
9.3.2 Organic Electron Transport Materials
9.4 The Architectures of Perovskite Solar Cells
9.4.1 Mesoscopic Perovskite Solar Cells
9.4.2 Planar Perovskite Solar Cells
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 10 Dopant‐Free Hole‐Transporting Materials for Perovskite Solar Cells
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Device Structure of Perovskite Solar Cells
10.1.2 Charge Transport in Perovskite Solar Cells and Role of HTM
10.2 Hole‐Transporting Material for Perovskite Solar Cells
10.2.1 Characteristics of an HTM and Interaction with Perovskite
10.2.2 Nature of HTM: Organometallic, Inorganic, and Organic (Small Molecules and Polymers)
10.2.3 Doping of Hole‐Transporting Materials in PSCs
10.3 Dopant‐Free Organic HTMs for Perovskite Solar Cells
10.3.1 Dopant‐Free Organic Polymer As HTM
10.3.2 Dopant‐Free Small Molecules as HTM
10.3.2.1 Triarylamine‐Based HTM
10.3.2.2 Carbazole‐Based HTMs
10.3.2.3 Thiophene‐Based HTMs
10.3.2.4 Acene‐Based HTMs
10.3.2.5 Triazatruxene‐Based HTMs
10.3.2.6 Tetrathiafulvalene‐Based HTM
10.3.2.7 Organometallic Compounds and Other Molecules as HTM
10.4 Conclusion and Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 11 Impact of Monovalent Metal Halides on the Structural and Photophysical Properties of Halide Perovskite
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Metal Halides
11.3 Monovalent Metal Halides
11.4 Impact of Monovalent Metal Halides on the Morphological, Structural and Optoelectronic Properties of Perovskites
11.5 Impact of Monovalent Metal Halides on Photovoltaic Device Characterizations
References
Chapter 12 Charge Carrier Dynamics in Perovskite Solar Cells
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Space Charge‐Limited Conduction
12.3 Immitance Spectroscopy
12.3.1 Impedance Spectroscopy
12.3.2 Capacitance Spectroscopy
12.3.2.1 Capacitance vs. Frequency (C–f) Measurements
12.3.2.2 Capacitance vs. Voltage (C–V) Measurements and Mott–Schottky Analysis
12.3.2.3 Thermal Admittance Spectroscopy
12.4 Transient Spectroscopy
12.4.1 Time‐Resolved Microwave Conductivity Measurements
12.4.2 Transient Absorption Spectroscopy
12.4.3 Time‐Resolved Photoluminescence
12.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 13 Printable Mesoscopic Perovskite Solar Cells
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Device Structures and Working Principles
13.3 Progress of Efficiency and Stability
13.4 Scaling‐up of Printable Mesoscopic Perovskite Solar Cells
13.4.1 The Structure of Printable Mesoscopic PSC Modules
13.4.2 Solution Deposition Methods of Printable Mesoscopic PSC Modules
13.4.3 Encapsulation of Printable Mesoscopic PSCs
13.4.4 The Recycling of Printable Mesoscopic PSCs
13.4.5 Mass‐Production of Printable Mesoscopic PSC Modules
13.4.6 Standardizing the Evaluation of PSC Modules
13.4.7 Standardizing the Aging Measurements of PSC Modules
13.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 14 Upscaling of Perovskite Photovoltaics
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Techniques for Upscaling
14.3 State‐of‐the‐art of Large‐Area High‐Quality Perovskite Devices
14.4 Strategies of Upscaling of Perovskite Devices
14.4.1 Strategies for Up‐Scaling Perovskite Layers
14.4.1.1 Physical Methods
14.4.1.2 Chemical Methods
14.4.1.3 Post‐Growth Treatment
14.4.2 Scalable Charge Extraction Layers
14.4.3 Scalable Electrodes
14.4.3.1 Bottom Electrode
14.4.3.2 Top Electrode
14.5 Module Layout
14.6 Lifetime Aspects
14.7 Summary and Outlook
References
Chapter 15 Scalable Architectures and Fabrication Processes of Perovskite Solar Cell Technology
15.1 Background
15.1.1 Configurations and Device Architectures of Perovskite Solar Cells
15.1.2 HTM‐Free Device Configurations for Perovskite Solar Cells
15.1.3 Perovskites‐Based Tandem Solar Cells
15.2 Scalable Device Designs of Perovskite Solar Cells
15.2.1 Scalable n–i–p Configuration‐Based Perovskite Solar Modules
15.2.2 Scalable p–i–n Configuration‐Based Perovskite Solar Modules
15.2.3 Scalable n–i–p and p–i–n Configuration‐Based Flexible Perovskite Solar Modules
15.2.4 HTM‐Free Perovskite Solar Modules
15.3 Critical Overview on Scalable Materials Deposition Methods
15.4 Nutshell of Long‐Term Device Stability of Perovskite Solar Cells and Modules
15.5 Conclusive Summary and Futuristic Outlook
References
Chapter 16 Multi‐Junction Perovskite Solar Cells
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 How Efficient Can Solar Cells Be?
16.1.2 How Do Multi‐Junction Solar Cells Work?
16.1.3 Multi‐Junction: Two‐Terminal, Three‐Terminal, and Four‐Terminal Multi‐Junctions
16.1.4 Why Perovskites for Multi‐Junctions?
16.2 Perovskite‐Silicon Tandems
16.2.1 Bandgap Engineering
16.2.2 Parasitic Absorption
16.2.3 Optical Management
16.3 Perovskite–Perovskite Tandems
16.4 Characterizing Tandems
16.5 Commercialization
16.5.1 Reliability
16.5.2 Scalability
16.5.3 Cost
16.6 Outlook
References
Index
EULA