Perovskite Photovoltaics and Optoelectronics: From Fundamentals to Advanced Applications

Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 Research Background and Recent Progress of Perovskite Photovoltaics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History of Halide Perovskite Photovoltaics
1.2.1 Discovery of the Perovskite Crystal Form
1.2.2 Discovery of Metal Halide Perovskites
1.2.3 Beginning of Halide Perovskite Photovoltaics
1.3 Semiconductor Properties of Organo‐Lead Halide Perovskites
1.4 Working Principle of Perovskite Photovoltaics
1.5 Compositional Engineering for the Halide Perovskite Absorbers
1.6 Strategies to Stabilize Halide Perovskite Solar Cells
1.6.1 Bridging the Gap Between Efficiency and Stability
1.6.2 Enhancing Intrinsic Stability of Halide Perovskites
1.6.3 External and Environmental Stability
1.7 Progress of All inorganic and Lead‐Free Perovskites
1.8 Enhancing Efficiency of Low‐Cost Tandem Solar Cells
1.9 Space Applications of the Perovskite Solar Cells
1.10 Conclusion and Perspectives
References
Chapter 2 Halide Perovskite Materials, Structural Dimensionality, and Synthesis
2.1 Three‐Dimensional and Low‐Dimensional Semiconductors: Organic‐Inorganic Perovskites
2.2 Perovskite‐Type Metal Halide Compounds
2.3 Preparation of Two‐ to Three‐Dimensional Lead Halide‐Based Perovskite Compounds
2.3.1 Spin‐Coating Method for Synthesis
2.3.2 Vacuum Evaporation Method
2.3.3 Two‐Step Deposition Method
2.3.4 Self‐Intercalation Method
2.3.5 Layer‐by‐Layer Self‐Assembly Method
2.3.6 Langmuir–Blodgett Method
2.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3 Microstructures and Grain Boundaries of Halide Perovskite Thin Films
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Microstructure Characteristics
3.2.1 The Nature of Grain Boundaries (GBs)
3.2.2 Grain Size and Distribution
3.2.3 Crystallographic Texture
3.3 Microstructural Evolution in HP Thin Films
3.3.1 Genesis of Microstructure
3.3.2 Grain Growth
3.4 Influence of Microstructures and GBs on Performance and Stability
3.4.1 Grain Size Effects
3.4.2 Effects of the Nature of GBs
3.4.3 Crystallographic Texture Effects
3.5 Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4 Defect Properties of Halide Perovskites for Photovoltaic Applications
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Defect Properties of ABX3 Halide Perovskites
4.2.1 Pb‐Based Halide Perovskites
4.2.1.1 Point Defects
4.2.1.2 Ideal Grain Boundaries
4.2.1.3 Ideal Surfaces
4.2.1.4 Surfaces and Boundaries in Real Thin Films
4.2.2 Sn‐Based Halide Perovskites
4.2.3 Ge‐Based Halide Perovskites
4.3 Defect Properties of Halide Perovskites Beyond ABX3
4.3.1 A2BX6 Halide Perovskite Derivatives
4.3.2 A3B2X9 Layered Halide Perovskites
4.3.3 A2B(I)B(III)X6 Halide Double Perovskites
4.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Physics of Perovskite Solar Cells: Efficiency, Open‐Circuit Voltage, and Recombination
5.1 Theory
5.1.1 Power‐Conversion Efficiency of a Solar Cell
5.1.2 The Ideal Solar Cell: Shockley–Queisser Limit
5.1.3 Radiative Limit, Reciprocity, and Detailed Balance
5.1.4 Non‐radiative Recombination and Role of Contacts
5.2 Determining Efficiency and Characterizing Recombination
5.2.1 The Current Density–Voltage (J–V) Curve
5.2.2 Determination of the Bandgap and the “Voltage Deficit”
5.2.3 Electroluminescence
5.2.4 Photoluminescence
5.2.5 Transient Photoluminescence
5.2.6 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
5.2.7 Transient Photovoltage Decay and IMVS
5.2.8 The Ideality Factor
5.2.9 Space Charge‐Limited Currents
5.3 Recombination in Perovskite Solar Cells: What We Know
5.3.1 Intrinsic Properties of the Perovskite Crystal
5.3.1.1 Relatively High Absorption and Fast Radiative Recombination
5.3.1.2 Shallow Defects and Defect Tolerance
5.3.1.3 High Dielectric Constant
5.3.1.4 Low‐Frequency Lattice Phonons
5.3.1.5 Further Explanations for Reduced Recombination
5.3.2 Impurities
5.3.3 Grain Boundaries
5.3.4 Interfaces: Between Alignment and Passivation
5.3.5 Mobile Ions
5.4 Summary and Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 6 Ionic/Electronic Conduction and Capacitance of Halide Perovskite Materials
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Overview
6.3 Carrier Transport
6.3.1 General Determination of Transport Coefficients, Diffusion Coefficient, and Mobility
6.3.2 Mixed Ionic/Electronic Conduction and Time Constants
6.3.3 Measurement of Ionic Conductivity by Galvanostatic Transient Method
6.3.4 Measurement of Ionic Diffusion by Impedance Spectroscopy
6.3.5 Ionic Drift Causes Suppression of Luminescence
6.4 Interpretation of Capacitances in Semiconductor Devices
6.4.1 Dielectric Relaxation
6.4.2 Chemical Capacitance
6.4.3 Electrode Polarization
6.4.4 Depletion Capacitance at the Schottky Barrier
6.4.5 Capacitance Associated to Defect Levels
6.5 Surface Polarization and Capacitances of MHP
6.5.1 General Properties of the Capacitance of MHP
6.5.2 Complexity of Mott–Schottky Analysis
6.5.3 Measurement of Trap Density
6.6 Impedance Spectroscopy and the Equivalent Circuit Model
6.6.1 Interpretation of Equivalent Circuits
6.6.2 Negative Capacitance Phenomena
6.6.3 Application of IS Model to Understanding of Memory Effects
6.7 Intensity‐Modulated Photocurrent Spectroscopy
6.8 Dynamic Response in Time Transient Methods
6.8.1 Time Transients of Photovoltage and Charge–Discharge Methods
6.8.2 Charge–Discharge Methods
6.8.3 Significance of Surface Charging in MHP
6.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7 Hysteresis of I–V Performance: Its Origin and Engineering for Elimination
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Hysteresis in Current–Voltage Performance
7.3 Material and Structure Design to Reduce Hysteresis
7.3.1 Grain Boundary Engineering
7.3.2 Interfacial Engineering
7.3.3 Defect Engineering
7.4 Effect of Alkali Cation Doping
7.4.1 Reduction in Hysteresis by KI Doping: A Universal Approach
7.4.2 Passivation Effect of Excess KI
7.4.3 Location of Potassium Ion in Perovskite
7.4.4 In situ Photoluminescence (PL) as a Tool to Measure Ion Migration Kinetics
7.5 Summary
References
Chapter 8 High‐Efficiency Solar Cells with Polyelemental, Multicomponent Perovskite Materials
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Polyelemental, Multicomponent Engineering
8.2.1 Single‐Cation Perovskites
8.2.2 Double‐Cation Perovskites: Stabilizing the Black Phase
8.2.3 Triple‐Cation Perovskites: Stable and Reproducible Devices
8.2.4 Quadruple‐Cation Perovskite: Improvement of Long‐Term Device Stability
8.2.5 Methylammonium‐Free Perovskite: Staying in the Black Phase with Fewer Components
8.3 Conclusions
References
Chapter 9 All‐Inorganic Perovskite Photovoltaics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 All‐Inorganic Lead Halide Perovskites
9.2.1 Cesium Lead Iodide (CsPbI3): Black‐Phase Stabilization
9.2.1.1 Additive Approach
9.2.1.2 Quantum Dot‐Induced Black‐Phase Stabilization
9.2.1.3 Stabilization by Surface Treatment
9.2.1.4 B‐Site Doping
9.2.2 Cesium Lead Bromide (CsPbBr3)
9.2.3 Cesium Lead Mixed‐Halide Perovskites (CsPbI3−xBrx)
9.3 All‐Inorganic Tin Halide Perovskites
9.3.1 CsSnX3 (X = I, Br, Cl)
9.3.2 Cs2SnX6 (X = I, Br)
9.4 All‐Inorganic Silver‐Bismuth Halides
9.4.1 Cs2M1(I)M2(III)X6 Double Perovskite
9.4.2 AgaBibXa+3b Rudorffites
9.5 Summary and Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 10 Sn‐Based Halide Perovskite Solar Cells
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Sn–Pb Perovskite Solar Cells
10.2.1 Background
10.2.2 Stabilization of Sn(II) Ions
10.2.3 Efficiency Enhancement
10.2.4 Interfacial Engineering and Device Architecture
10.3 Pb‐free Sn Perovskite Solar Cells
10.3.1 Background
10.3.2 Ge‐Doped Sn Perovskites
10.3.3 Efficiency Enhancement by Grain Boundary Passivation
10.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11 Quantum Dots of Halide Perovskite
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Synthesis of Halide Perovskite QDs
11.2.1 Ligand‐Assisted Reprecipitation Method
11.2.2 Hot Injection Method
11.2.3 Ion Exchange Reactions
11.3 The Photophysics of Halide Perovskite QDs
11.3.1 Tunable Bandgap
11.3.2 Multiple Exciton Generation
11.3.3 Hot Electron Extraction
11.4 Surface Passivation of Halide Perovskite QDs
11.4.1 Surface Ligand Engineering
11.4.2 Post‐Synthetic Treatment
11.4.3 Surface Coating
11.5 Applications of Halide Perovskite QDs
11.5.1 Light‐Emitting Diode (LED)
11.5.2 Solar Cells
11.6 Conclusion and Outlook
References
Chapter 12 Perovskite Light‐Emitting Diode Technologies
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Physics Behind Operation of Perovskite‐Based LEDs
12.2.1 Photon Generation by Electrostimulation
12.2.2 Charge Balance in PeLEDs
12.2.3 Non‐radiative Losses in PeLEDs
12.2.4 Photon Recycling in PeLEDs
12.3 Progress on Perovskite‐Based LEDs
12.3.1 Literature Review
12.3.1.1 Near‐Infrared PeLEDs
12.3.1.2 Red PeLEDs
12.3.1.3 Green PeLEDs
12.3.1.4 Blue PeLEDs
12.4 Challenges and Outlook
12.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 13 Perovskites Enabled Highly Sensitive and Fast Photodetectors
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Why Perovskites for Photodetectors
13.3 Types of Perovskite Photodetectors
13.3.1 Photodiodes
13.3.1.1 Broadband Photodiodes
13.3.1.2 Narrowband Photodiodes
13.3.2 Photoconductors
13.3.2.1 Vertical Photoconductors
13.3.2.2 Lateral Photoconductors
13.3.3 Phototransistor
13.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Disclaimer
References
Chapter 14 Metal Halide Perovskites for Sensitive X‐ray Detectors
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Working Mechanism of X‐ray Detectors
14.3 Material Properties of Ideal X‐ray Detectors
14.4 Conventional X‐ray Detectors
14.5 Perovskite X‐ray Detectors
14.5.1 Direct Perovskite X‐ray Detectors
14.5.2 Perovskite X‐ray Scintillators
14.6 Characterization of X‐ray Flat Panels
14.6.1 Sensitivity
14.6.2 DQE
14.6.3 MTF
14.6.4 Pixel‐to‐Pixel Uniformity
14.6.5 Imaging Lag
14.6.6 Ghosting
14.7 Summary and Outlook
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 15 Perovskite‐Based Multijunction Solar Cells
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Why Perovskites?
15.3 How to Make an Efficient Perovskite‐Based Tandem?
15.3.1 Low Bandgap Solar Cell
15.3.1.1 Silicon
15.3.1.2 Chalcopyrites: CIGS and CIS
15.3.1.3 Sn/Pb Low Bandgap Perovskites
15.3.2 Recombination Junction
15.3.2.1 Nanocrystalline Silicon Junction
15.3.2.2 Recombination Layer for All‐Perovskite Tandems
15.3.3 Wide‐Bandgap Perovskite Solar Cell
15.3.4 Mitigating Optical Losses
15.3.4.1 Parasitic Absorption Losses
15.3.4.2 Reflection Losses: Front, Middle, and Back
15.3.4.3 Textured Substrates
15.3.4.4 Current Matching Versus Power Matching
15.4 Toward Commercialization
15.4.1 Energy Yield
15.4.2 Cost
15.4.3 Market Choice
15.5 Beyond Tandems: Triple?
15.6 Concluding Remarks
References
Index
EULA