Pediatric Dentistry

Contents
Contributors
1: Pediatric Dentistry: Past, Present, and Future
1.1 Brief Historical Overview
1.2 Child Oral Health. Inequalities and the Dental Services
1.2.1 Trends in Pediatric Dentistry in the Future
1.3 Addressing Children’s Rights
1.4 Breadth of Knowledge in Pediatric Dentistry
References
2: Child Cognitive Development: Building Positive Attitudes toward Dentists and Oral Health
2.1 The Dentist’s Long-Term Goal for Pediatric Patients and an Introduction to Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
2.1.1 Sensorimotor Stage
2.1.2 Preoperational Stage
2.1.3 Concrete Operational Stage
2.1.4 Formal Operational Thought
2.2 Using Memory Principles to Help Prevent the Development of Fear
2.3 Tailoring Oral Messages to the Individual Patient
References
3: Pediatric Body Growth
3.1 Normal Growth
3.1.1 Growth Phases
3.1.1.1 Prenatal Growth
3.1.1.2 Infantile Growth
3.1.1.3 Growth in Childhood
3.1.1.4 Pubertal Growth
3.1.2 Growth Evaluation
3.1.2.1 Weight and Height Measurement
3.1.2.2 Growth Velocity
3.1.2.3 Midparental Height or Target Height
3.1.2.4 Bone Age
3.1.2.5 Dental Age
3.2 Growth Disorders
3.2.1 Intrauterine Growth Retardation and Small for Gestational Age Newborns
3.2.2 Short Stature
3.2.3 Tall Stature
3.3 Puberty
3.3.1 Disorders of Puberty
3.3.1.1 Precocious Puberty
3.3.1.2 Delayed Puberty
References
4: Child Dental Fear, Communication and Cooperation
4.1 Child Misbehavior
4.2 Fear Definitions and Prevalence
4.2.1 Definitions of Dental Fear, Anxiety, and Phobia
4.2.2 Relationship between Child Misbehavior and Fear
4.3 Etiologies of Dental Fear
4.3.1 Classical Conditioning
4.3.2 Social Learning Theory
4.3.3 Cognitive
4.3.4 Feelings of Helplessness and Loss of Control
4.3.5 Genetic
4.3.6 Family Stressors
4.3.7 Temperament
4.3.8 Parenting Style and Other Parenting Factors
4.3.9 Parental Dental Fear
4.4 Measuring Dental Fear
4.4.1 Self-Report Measures
4.4.2 Behavior Rating Scale
4.5 Relationships between the Pain Threshold, Fear, and the Experience of Pain
4.5.1 Providing Children with Information about What Will Happen
4.5.2 Dental Visits that Do Not Involve Invasive Procedures
4.5.3 Impact of Treatment Aspects on the Child’s Sense of Loss of Control
4.6 Self-Management of Fear
4.6.1 The Importance of Age and Maturity
4.6.2 Child Crying and Coping Behavior
4.6.3 Therapeutic Management of Fear (Desensitization)
4.7 Special Issues with Adolescents
4.7.1 Respond to Requests for Privacy
4.7.2 Adolescents May Resist Going to the Dentist
4.8 Communication in the Dental Environment
4.8.1 Nonverbal Communication between the Dentist and the Child Patient
4.8.2 Verbal Communication between the Dentist and the Child Patient
4.8.3 Communication with Parents
4.8.4 Communication with the Child
4.8.5 Providing Written Information
Dental Office Logo
4.8.6 Empathy and Communication
4.9 The Influence of the Dental Environment
4.9.1 Provide Positive Stimuli before the Initial Visit
4.9.2 Have Welcoming Reception, Staff and Waiting Areas
References
5: Behavior Guidance and Communicative Management
5.1 Definitions and Classification
5.1.1 Classification of Behavior Guidance and Management Techniques
5.1.1.1 Basic
5.1.1.2 Advanced
5.2 Basic Behavior Guidance
5.2.1 Tell-Show-Do
5.2.2 Providing Control
5.2.3 Ask-Tell-Ask
5.2.4 Positive Reinforcement
5.2.5 Distraction
5.2.6 Modeling
5.2.7 Voice Control
5.2.8 Parental Presence
5.2.8.1 Parental Presence/Absence as a Behavior Shaping Technique
5.2.9 Other Complementary Techniques
5.3 Advanced Behavior Guidance
5.3.1 Protective Stabilization
5.3.2 Dealing with Demanding Behavior Problems
5.3.2.1 Intense Fear of Dental Injection
5.3.2.2 Intense Gag Reflex
5.3.2.3 Emotional` Immaturity and Language Problems
5.4 Ethical and Legal Issues and Parental Consent
References
6: Examination, Diagnosis, and Treatment Plan Implementation
6.1 Examination and Diagnostic Process
6.1.1 History Taking
6.1.1.1 Family and Social History
6.1.1.2 Medical History
6.1.1.3 Dental History
6.1.2 Clinical Examination
6.1.2.1 Extraoral Examination
6.1.2.2 Intraoral Examination
6.1.2.3 Soft Tissue Examination
6.1.2.4 Examination of Periodontal Tissues
6.1.2.5 Examination of Hard Dental Tissues
6.1.2.6 Examination of Dental Occlusion
6.1.2.7 First Dental Examination and Recalls
6.1.3 Radiographic Examination
6.1.3.1 Examination with Intraoral Radiographs
Imaging Techniques
Image Detectors
Image Detector Holders
Collimation and Protective Aprons or Shields
Bitewing Radiography
Periapical Radiography
Occlusal (Standard and Oblique) Radiography
6.1.3.2 Examination with Extraoral Radiographs
Panoramic Radiography
Cephalometric Radiography
Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT)
Oblique Lateral Radiography
6.2 Implementing a Total Care Treatment Plan
6.2.1 Presentation of the Treatment Plan to Parents
6.2.2 Factors Affecting the Progress of the Treatment Plan
6.2.3 Referral to a Pediatric Dentist
References
7: Local Anesthesia in Pediatric Dentistry
7.1 Equipment and Factors Relating to Local Anesthesia
7.1.1 Topical Anesthetics
7.1.2 Injectors and Needles
7.1.3 Types of Local Anesthetics – Dosage
7.1.4 Vasoconstrictors
7.1.5 Rate or Speed of Injected Solution
7.1.6 Temperature of Injected Solution
7.1.7 Local Anesthesia Using Alternative Kinds of Injectors
7.1.7.1 Computer-Controlled Administering of Anesthetic Solution
7.1.7.2 Anesthesia without Use of Needle – Jet Anesthetic Technique
7.2 Main Local Anesthesia Techniques
7.2.1 Topical Local Anesthesia
7.2.2 Main Local Anesthesia Techniques with Infiltration in Free Mucosa
7.2.2.1 Local Infiltration Anesthesia
7.2.2.2 Inferior Alveolar Nerve Block Anesthesia
7.2.3 Main Palatal Anesthesia
7.2.3.1 Anterior Middle Superior Alveolar Nerve Block (AMSA)
7.2.3.2 Nasopalatine Nerve Block
7.2.3.3 Palatal Anterior Superior Alveolar Block (P-ASA)
7.2.4 Injection within the Bone
7.2.4.1 Intraseptal Anesthesia
7.2.4.2 Intraosseous Anesthesia
7.2.5 Other Anesthesia
7.2.5.1 Intraligamental Anesthesia
7.2.5.2 Intrapulpal Anesthesia
7.3 Behavior Guidance for the Administering of Local Anesthesia
7.3.1 Preparing the Child
7.3.2 Administration of Local Anesthesia
7.4 Complications of Local Anesthesia
7.4.1 Local Complications
7.4.1.1 Needle Breakage
7.4.1.2 Pain and Sense of Burning
7.4.1.3 Paresthesia
7.4.1.4 Cheek, Lip, or Tongue Injury
7.4.1.5 Edema
7.4.1.6 Hematoma
7.4.1.7 Trismus
7.4.1.8 Reaction to Vasoconstrictors
7.4.2 Systemic Complications
References
8: Pharmacologic Behavior Management (Sedation – General Anesthesia)
8.1 Sedation
8.1.1 Indications
8.1.1.1 Special Considerations in the Pediatric Patient
8.1.1.2 Assessment of Health Status and Cooperation
8.1.1.3 Preparation of Child and Parent for Sedation and Informed Consent
8.1.2 Sedation Procedures
8.1.2.1 General Prerequisites
8.1.2.2 Monitoring and Resuscitation Equipment (General Recommendations)
8.1.2.3 Documentation before and during Sedation
8.2 Minimal Sedation (Anxiolysis) and Moderate (Conscious) Sedation
8.2.1 Inhalation Sedation with Nitrous Oxide/Oxygen Mixture
8.2.1.1 Stages of Anesthesia
Relative Analgesia and Planes of Analgesia
8.2.1.2 Administration Technique
Titrating Gases for Sedation
8.2.1.3 Monitoring
8.2.1.4 Contraindications
8.2.1.5 Adverse Effects
8.2.1.6 Personnel Safety in Dental Surgery
8.2.1.7 Use of Nitrous Oxide/Oxygen Sedation in the COVID-19 Era
Box
8.2.2 Moderate Sedation with Other Drugs
8.2.2.1 Benzodiazepines
8.2.2.2 Other Drugs and Combination
Clinical Case Presentation – Comprehensive Dental Treatment Under Sedation with a Combination of Oral and Inhaled Drugs in a Pediatric ­Hospital-Based Dental Clinic
8.3 General Anesthesia
8.3.1 Preoperative Evaluation and Admission to Hospital
8.3.2 Induction of Anesthesia and Dental Treatment
8.3.2.1 Preparation of the Dental Team for Operating Room Procedures
8.3.2.2 Induction of General Anesthesia
8.3.2.3 Dental Treatment
Clinical Case Presentation – Oral Rehabilitation Under GA
8.4 Safety Concerns About Sedation or General Anesthesia
References
9: Growth of the Craniofacial Complex
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 The Changing Features of the Growing Face
9.2 Prenatal Facial Growth and Development
9.3 Concepts of the Growth Process
9.4 Bone and Cartilage
9.5 Growth of the Neurocranium
9.5.1 The Calvaria
9.5.2 The Basicranium
9.6 Growth of the Nasomaxillary Complex
9.6.1 The Maxillary Tuberosity and Arch Lengthening
9.6.2 Palatal Remodeling and Alveolar Development
9.6.3 Downward Maxillary Displacement
9.7 Growth of the Mandible
9.7.1 The Ramus
9.7.2 The Lingual Tuberosity
9.7.3 The Mandibular Condyle
9.7.4 Ramus Uprighting
9.8 Cephalometrics
9.9 Normal Variations in Facial Form and the Anatomic Basis for Malocclusions
References
10: Tooth Eruption, Shedding, Extraction and Related Surgical Issues
10.1 The Physiology of Tooth Eruption
10.1.1 Chronology and Sequence of Tooth Eruption
10.1.2 Mechanism of Tooth Eruption
10.2 Symptoms of Tooth Eruption
10.2.1 Local Treatment of Teething Symptoms
10.2.2 Systemic Treatment of Teething Symptoms
10.3 Disturbances in Tooth Eruption
10.3.1 Premature Tooth Eruption: Neonatal Teeth
10.3.2 Delayed Tooth Eruption
10.3.2.1 Generalized Delay in Tooth Eruption
10.3.2.2 Localized Delay in Tooth Eruption
10.3.3 Other Disturbances in Tooth Eruption
10.3.3.1 Ectopic Eruption of Permanent Teeth
10.3.3.2 Ankylosis of Primary Teeth
10.3.3.3 Eruption Cysts
10.3.3.4 Inflammation Related to Eruption of Teeth
10.4 Shedding and Extraction
10.4.1 Shedding of Primary Teeth
10.4.1.1 Premature Shedding of Primary Teeth
10.4.2 Extraction and Surgical Techniques Related to Eruption
10.4.2.1 Extraction of Primary Teeth
Managing Ankylosed Primary Molars
10.4.2.2 Extraction of Structures Impeding Tooth Eruption
10.5 Transplantation of Teeth
10.5.1 Extraction and Re-implantation of Permanent Teeth
10.5.2 Transplantation of Teeth Anteriorly
10.5.3 Intentional Re-implantation
References
11: Orthodontic Knowledge and Practice for the Pediatric Dentist
11.1 General Perspectives in Orthodontic Management of Children and Adolescents
11.1.1 Profile Evaluation
11.1.1.1 Straight Profile
11.1.1.2 Convex Profile
11.1.1.3 Concave Profile
11.1.2 Concluding Remarks on Profile Evaluation
11.2 Age-Specific Perspectives in Orthodontic Management of Children and Adolescents
11.2.1 Intervention in the Primary Dentition
11.2.1.1 Arch Space Anomalies
11.2.1.2 Occlusal Anomalies
At the Vertical Plane
At the Sagittal Plane
At the Transverse Plane
11.2.2 Intervention in the Mixed Dentition
11.2.2.1 Arch Space Anomalies
Crowding
11.2.2.2 Mixed Dentition Analysis
11.2.2.3 Dental Spacing
11.2.2.4 Occlusal Anomalies
At the Vertical Plane
At the Sagittal Plane
At the Transversal Plane
11.2.2.5 Tooth Number and Eruption-Related Anomalies
Ectopic Eruption of the First Permanent Molars and Canines
Congenitally Missing and Supernumerary Teeth
The Ankylosed Primary Molars
11.2.3 Harmful Oral Habits
11.2.3.1 Thumb-Sucking and Pacifier Overuse
11.2.3.2 The Position of the Tongue at Swallowing
11.2.3.3 Mouth Breathing
11.2.3.4 Nail-Biting
11.2.3.5 Lip Sucking
References
12: Dental Caries Prevention in Children and Adolescents
12.1 Dental Caries in Children and Adolescents
12.1.1 Pathogenesis of Dental Caries
12.1.1.1 The Physicochemical Process
12.1.1.2 Caries Microbiology
12.1.1.3 Other Caries Risk Factors
Saliva
Socioeconomic Status
Tooth Morphology and Structure
Tooth Arrangement in the Dental Arch
Dental Appliances and Restorations
Hereditary Factors
12.1.2 Epidemiology and Treatment Needs
12.1.3 Clinical Manifestation of Caries
12.1.3.1 Severe Forms of Active Caries
12.1.3.2 Arrested Caries
12.1.4 Caries Diagnosis and Record Keeping
12.1.4.1 Diagnostic Techniques, Tools, and Appliances
12.1.4.2 Relationship of Clinical, Radiographic, and Histological Examinations
12.1.4.3 Detection of Early Caries
12.1.4.4 Alternative Diagnostic Technologies for Carious Lesions
Digital Image Fiber-Optic Trans-illumination (DIFOTI)
Fluorescence Techniques
Laser/Light Fluorescence
Quantitative Light-Induced Fluorescence (QLF)
Digital Radiography
CCD Technology
SPP Technology
12.1.5 Caries Risk and Treatment Strategies
12.1.5.1 Caries Risk Assessment
12.1.5.2 Presence of Extrinsic Black Stains
12.1.5.3 The Treatment Strategy of Caries
12.2 Therapeutic Measures for Caries Control
12.2.1 Fluorides and Medicinal Means
12.2.1.1 Fluoride
Mechanism of Action
Systemic Fluoride
Water Fluoridation
Milk Fluoridation
Salt Fluoridation
Fluoride Tablets and Drops
Topical Fluorides
Home Use
Toothpaste
Fluoride Rinses
Professional Application
Fluoride Gels and Varnishes
Silver Diamine Fluoride
Fluoride Toxicity
Acute Fluoride Toxicity
Chronic Exposure to Fluoride: Dental Fluorosis
12.2.1.2 Other Alleged Anticaries Agents
Casein
Chlorhexidine
Xylitol
Probiotics
12.2.2 Dental Plaque Removal
12.2.2.1 Toothbrushing
Toothbrushes and Brushing Techniques
Timing, Frequency, and Duration of Brushing
12.2.2.2 Dental Floss and Interdental Brushes
12.2.3 Pit and Fissure Sealants
12.2.3.1 Sealant Placement Procedure
12.2.3.2 Recommendations for Use and Efficacy
12.2.4 The Diet
12.2.5 Patient Motivation and Recalls
12.2.5.1 Patient Motivation
12.2.5.2 Recall Visit
References
13: Restoration of Carious Hard Dental Tissues
13.1 Age up to 3 Years
13.1.1 Early Childhood Caries
13.1.1.1 Prevalence and Prevention
13.1.1.2 Treatment and Restorations
13.1.2 Atraumatic Restorative Treatment
13.2 Age 3 to 6 Years
13.2.1 Primary Molar Restorations
13.2.2 Preformed Metal Crowns (PMC)
13.2.2.1 Fitting Procedure
13.2.3 Restoring Anterior Primary Teeth
13.3 Age 6 to 12 Years
13.3.1 Pit and Fissure Caries
13.3.1.1 Preventive Resin Restoration (PRR)
13.3.2 Proximal Surfaces of Permanent Teeth
13.3.2.1 Permanent First Molars
13.3.2.2 Permanent Incisors
13.3.3 Excessively Carious Permanent Molars
13.4 Age 12 to 18 Years
13.4.1 Proximal and Smooth Surface Caries
13.4.2 Class II Cavities
13.5 Isolating the Working Field by Rubber Dam
13.5.1 Equipment
13.5.2 Preparation and Placement
13.5.3 Alternative Options for Isolation
13.6 Restorative Materials in Pediatric Dentistry
13.6.1 Cavity Matrices
13.6.2 Cavity Lining/Base Materials
13.6.3 Enamel and Dentin Adhesives
13.6.4 Glass-Ionomer Cements
13.6.5 Resin-Based Composites
13.6.5.1 Polyacid-Modified Resin Composites
13.6.5.2 Safety of Resin Biomaterials
13.6.6 Dental Amalgam
13.6.7 Preformed Crowns
13.6.7.1 Primary Teeth
13.6.7.2 Permanent Teeth
13.6.8 Veneers and Prosthetic Appliances
13.7 Restoration Failure and Contemporary Research
13.7.1 Failure and Repair of Restorations
13.7.2 Improving the Dental Materials
References
14: Pulp Therapy in Pediatric Dentistry
14.1 Diagnosing Pulp Pathology of the Primary Tooth: Managing the Emergencies
14.1.1 Diagnostic Procedure
14.1.1.1 Medical History
14.1.1.2 Dental History
14.1.1.3 Clinical Examination
Cavity Size
Edema
Mobility
Percussion
Vitality Tests
14.1.1.4 Radiographic Examination
Root Canal Obliteration
Internal Root Resorption
External Root Resorption
Bone Radiolucency
Depth of Carious Lesion
14.1.2 Management of Pulp-Related Emergency
14.1.2.1 Antimicrobial Medication in Emergency Cases
Description of an Emergency Case
14.2 Treatment of Pulp Pathology in Primary Teeth
14.2.1 Indirect Pulp Capping of Primary Teeth
14.2.1.1 Technique
14.2.1.2 Materials
14.2.1.3 Effectiveness
14.2.2 Direct Pulp Capping of Primary Teeth
14.2.2.1 Technique
14.2.2.2 Materials
Calcium Hydroxide
Mineral Trioxide Aggregate (MTA)
Other Materials Under Investigation
14.2.2.3 Effectiveness
14.2.3 Primary Molar Pulpotomy
14.2.3.1 Technique
14.2.3.2 Materials and Effectiveness of Pulpotomy
Mineral Trioxide Aggregate
Formocresol
Ferric Sulfate
Other Techniques and Medications
14.2.4 Pulpectomy/Root Canal Treatment of Primary Teeth
14.2.4.1 Technique
14.2.4.2 Root Canal Filling Materials and Effectiveness
14.3 Pulp Treatment of Young Carious Permanent Teeth
14.3.1 Indirect Pulp Capping
14.3.2 Direct Pulp Capping
14.3.3 Partial Pulpotomy and Cervical Pulpotomy
14.3.4 Root Canal Treatment of Immature Carious Teeth
14.3.4.1 Apexification
14.3.4.2 Revascularization
14.3.5 Restoring the Color of Discolored Teeth
References
15: Periodontal Diseases in Children and Adolescents
15.1 Diseases Restricted to Gingiva
15.1.1 Gingivitis
15.1.1.1 Definition, Epidemiology, and Clinical Findings
15.1.1.2 Microbiological and Histological Findings
15.1.1.3 Etiology and Treatment
15.1.2 Localized Juvenile Spongiotic Hyperplasia
15.1.3 Gingival Hyperplasia
15.1.3.1 Drug-Related Gingival Hyperplasia
15.1.3.2 Congenital Fibrous Gingival Hyperplasia
15.2 Periodontitis
15.2.1 Chronic Periodontitis in Children and Adolescents
15.2.1.1 Clinical, Microbiological, and Immunological Findings
15.2.1.2 Treatment
15.2.2 Periodontitis Associated with Systemic Disease
15.2.3 Diabetes Mellitus and Periodontal Disease
15.2.4 Acute Ulcerative Gingivitis/Periodontitis
15.3 Mucogingival Deformities
15.3.1 Gingival Recession
15.3.2 Frenum Pull
References
16: Dentoalveolar Trauma of Children and Adolescents
16.1 Introduction to Dentoalveolar Trauma
16.1.1 Classification
16.1.2 Epidemiology
16.1.2.1 Primary Teeth
16.1.2.2 Permanent Teeth
16.1.3 Etiology of Dental Trauma
16.1.3.1 Primary Teeth
16.1.3.2 Permanent Teeth
16.1.4 Examination: Diagnosis
16.1.4.1 Medical History
16.1.4.2 Dental Trauma History
16.1.4.3 Extraoral Examination
16.1.4.4 Intraoral Examination
16.1.4.5 Radiographic Examination
16.2 Dental Trauma to Primary Teeth
16.2.1 Fractures of Primary T
16.2.1.1 Enamel Infraction, Enamel-Dentine Crown Fracture Without Pulp Exposure
16.2.1.2 Crown Fracture with Pulp Exposure
16.2.1.3 Crown-Root Fracture
16.2.1.4 Root Fracture
16.2.2 Luxation Injuries to Primary Teeth
16.2.2.1 Concussion
16.2.2.2 Subluxation (Loosening)
16.2.2.3 Lateral Luxation
16.2.2.4 Intrusive Luxation
16.2.2.5 Extrusive Luxation
16.2.2.6 Avulsion
16.2.2.7 Alveolar Bone Fracture
16.2.3 Follow-Up and Complications of Trauma to Primary Teeth
16.2.3.1 Pulpitis
16.2.3.2 Discoloration of the Traumatized Tooth
16.2.3.3 Pulp Canal Obliteration
16.2.3.4 Pulp Necrosis
16.2.3.5 Root Resorption
16.2.4 Consequences of Primary Tooth Trauma to Their Permanent Successors
16.2.4.1 White or Yellow-Brown Spots on the Enamel
16.2.4.2 Enamel Hypoplasia
16.2.4.3 Crown Dilaceration
16.2.4.4 Other Rare Developmental Disorders
16.2.4.5 Consequences to Permanent Tooth Eruption
16.3 Dental Trauma to Permanent Teeth
16.3.1 Fractures of Permanent Teeth
16.3.1.1 Enamel Infraction
16.3.1.2 Complete Enamel Fracture
16.3.1.3 Enamel-Dentine Fracture Without Pulp Exposure (Uncomplicated Crown Fracture)
16.3.1.4 Enamel-Dentine Fracture with Pulp Exposure (Complicated Crown Fracture)
16.3.1.5 Crown-Root Fracture
16.3.1.6 Root Fracture
16.3.2 Luxation Injuries to Permanent Teeth
16.3.2.1 Concussion
16.3.2.2 Subluxation (Loosening)
16.3.2.3 Lateral Luxation
16.3.2.4 Intrusive Luxation
16.3.2.5 Extrusive Luxation
16.3.2.6 Avulsion
Emergency Treatment of an Avulsed Tooth
Mature Teeth (Closed Apex)
Immature Teeth (Open Apex)
16.3.3 Post-traumatic Complications of Permanent Teeth
16.3.3.1 Pulp Canal Obliteration
16.3.3.2 Pulp Necrosis
16.3.3.3 Root Resorption
16.3.4 Follow-Ups of Injured Permanent Teeth
16.3.5 Endodontic Evaluation and Management of Injured Permanent Teeth
16.3.5.1 Pulp Status Evaluation and Diagnosis Following Trauma
16.3.5.2 Keeping the Pulp Alive and Favoring Spontaneous Pulp Space Revascularization
16.3.5.3 Endodontic Treatment of Necrotic Teeth
16.4 Prognosis of Injured Teeth
16.5 Orthodontic Management of the Traumatized Dentition
16.6 Prevention of Dentoalveolar Trauma
16.6.1 Mouth-guards
References
17: Developmental Defects of the Teeth and Their Hard Tissues
17.1 Disturbances in Tooth Number, Size, and Morphology
17.1.1 A Short Introduction to Dental Development
17.1.2 Causes of Disturbances and Correlations with Overall Health
17.1.3 Clinical Expression of Disturbances and their Treatment
17.1.3.1 Variations in Tooth Number: Epidemiology and Clinical Phenotypes
17.1.3.2 Variations in Size, Shape, and Morphology of Teeth
17.2 Malformations of Dental Tissue Structure
17.2.1 The Structure of Enamel, Dentin, and Cementum
17.2.1.1 Mineralization Chronology of the Teeth
17.2.2 Clinical and Histological Appearance, Etiology, and Diagnosis
17.2.2.1 Developmental Dental Defects with Environmental Origin
17.2.2.2 Enamel Dysplasias Related to Diseases or Drugs
17.2.2.3 Dental Defects with Genetic Background
17.2.2.4 Dental Defects Unclassified as to Etiology
17.2.2.5 Systemic Diseases and Syndromes with Dental Defects
17.3 Developmental Discoloration of Dental Tissues
17.4 Conclusion
References
18: Tooth Wear in Children and Adolescents
18.1 Various Types of Tooth Wear
18.1.1 Attrition and Abrasion
18.1.2 Erosive Tooth Wear
18.2 Tooth Wear and Bruxism in Children
18.3 Dental Erosion
18.3.1 Prevalence and Severity
18.3.2 Aetiology of Dental Erosion
18.3.2.1 Extrinsic Factors
18.3.2.2 Intrinsic Factors
18.3.3 Examination and Diagnosis
18.3.4 Prevention of Erosion
18.3.5 Restoration of Erosive Lesions
References
19: Temporomandibular Disorders in Children and Adolescents
19.1 The Orofacial System: Principles of Occlusion and Function
19.1.1 Centric Positions of the Lower Jaw and Temporomandibular Joint
19.1.1.1 Maximum Intercuspation
19.1.1.2 Centric Relation/Centric Occlusion
19.1.2 Rest Position
19.1.3 Eccentric Positions
19.1.4 Eccentric Mandibular Movements
19.1.5 Vertical Dimension in Occlusion
19.2 Disorders of the Orofacial System
19.2.1 Epidemiology
19.2.2 Etiology
19.2.2.1 Bruxism
19.2.2.2 Does Malocclusion Cause TMD?
19.2.2.3 Does TMD Cause Malocclusion?
19.2.2.4 TMD and Orthodontics
19.2.3 Anamnestic Records
19.2.4 Clinical Examination
19.2.5 Imaging
19.2.6 Diagnosis
19.2.7 Treatment Strategies
19.3 Summary
References
20: Oral Lesions in Children and Adolescents
20.1 Common Oral Mucosal and Bony Abnormalities
20.1.1 Erythema Migrans (Geographic Tongue)
20.1.2 Palatal Torus (Torus Palatinus)
20.1.3 Mandibular Torus (Torus Mandibularis)
20.1.4 Cysts
20.2 Reactive Overgrowths
20.2.1 Pyogenic Granuloma
20.2.2 Fibroepithelial Polyp
20.2.3 Peripheral Ossifying Fibroma
20.2.4 Peripheral Giant Cell Lesion
20.2.5 Congenital Granular Cell Tumor (Congenital Epulis of the Neonates)
20.2.6 Other Swellings
20.3 Vascular Malformations (Hamartomas)
20.3.1 Hemangioma
20.3.2 Lymphangioma
20.4 Oral Ulceration
20.4.1 Traumatic Oral Ulceration
20.4.1.1 Riga-Fede Disease and Riga-Fede Granuloma
20.4.1.2 Chronic Mucosal Biting
20.4.2 Aphthous Ulceration and Related Disease
20.4.2.1 Systemic Autoinflammatory Disorders
20.4.3 Oral Ulceration Secondary to Systemic Disease of Childhood
20.4.3.1 Gastrointestinal Disease
20.4.3.2 Crohn’s Disease
20.4.3.3 Gluten-Sensitive Enteropathy (Coeliac Disease)
20.5 Infectious Diseases in Childhood
20.5.1 Viral Infections
20.5.1.1 Herpes Simplex
20.5.1.2 Herpes Zoster (Varicella Zoster)
20.5.1.3 Infectious Mononucleosis
20.5.1.4 Hand Foot and Mouth Disease
20.5.1.5 Herpangina
20.5.1.6 Measles
20.5.1.7 Mumps
20.5.1.8 Human Papilloma Virus Infections
20.5.1.9 Common Warts (Verruca Vulgaris, Squamous Papilloma)
20.5.1.10 Multifocal Epithelial Hyperplasia (MEH, Heck’s Disease)
20.5.1.11 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
20.5.2 Bacterial Infections
20.5.2.1 Impetigo
20.5.2.2 Scarlet Fever
20.5.2.3 Tuberculosis
20.5.2.4 Acute Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis
20.5.2.5 Other Bacterial Infections
20.5.3 Fungal Infections
20.5.3.1 Pseudomembranous Candidiasis (Thrush)
20.6 Mucocutaneous Disease
20.6.1 Erythema Multiforme
20.6.2 Allergic Reactions
20.6.3 Other Mucocutaneous Disease
20.7 Hematological Disease
20.7.1 Hematological Malignancies
20.7.1.1 Lymphomas
20.7.1.2 Hodgkin’s Disease
20.7.1.3 Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
20.7.1.4 Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis
Eosinophilic Granuloma
Hand-Schüller-Christian Disease
Letterer-Siwe Disease
20.7.1.5 Leukemia
20.7.2 Disorders of Blood Cells
20.7.2.1 Anemia
20.7.2.2 Thalassemia
20.7.2.3 Sickle Cell Disease
20.7.2.4 Neutropenia
20.7.3 Bleeding Disorders
20.7.3.1 Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia (HHT, Osler-Weber-Rendu Syndrome)
20.7.3.2 Thrombocytopenia
20.7.3.3 Coagulopathies
Hemophilia A
Hemophilia B (“Christmas Disease”)
von Willebrand’s Disease
20.8 Salivary Gland Disease
20.8.1 Mucocele
20.8.2 Ranula
20.8.3 Sialolithiasis
20.8.4 Acute Suppurative Sialadenitis (Suppurative Parotitis, Bacterial Sialadenitis, Bacterial Parotitis)
20.8.5 Recurrent Parotitis of Childhood (Juvenile Recurrent Parotitis)
20.8.6 Xerostomia (Oral Dryness)
20.8.7 Drooling
References
21: The Young Dental Patient with Systemic Disease
21.1 Neoplasms
21.1.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
21.1.2 Dental Care Protocol
21.2 Cardiovascular Diseases and Chemoprophylaxis
21.2.1 Microbial Endocarditis and Dental Care
21.2.2 Prevention Protocol for Dental Patients
21.3 Diabetes Mellitus
21.3.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
21.4 Asthma
21.4.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
21.5 Chronic Renal Failure
21.5.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
21.6 Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
21.6.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
21.7 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis
21.7.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
References
22: Disabilities, Neuropsychiatric Disorders, and Syndromes in Childhood and Adolescence
22.1 Introductory Comments
22.1.1 Access and Design of the Dental Practice
22.1.2 Prevalence and Preventive Care
22.1.3 Difficulties for the Dental Treatment of Special Needs Patients
22.2 Patients with Disabilities
22.2.1 Cerebral Palsy and Physical Disability
22.2.1.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
22.2.2 Cognitive Developmental Disabilities
22.2.2.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
22.2.3 Sensory Disabilities
22.2.3.1 Visual Impairment (Blindness)
22.2.3.2 Dental Findings and Treatment
22.2.3.3 Hearing Problems (Deafness)
22.2.3.4 Dental Findings and Treatment
22.3 Patients with Neuropsychiatric/Psychological Disorders
22.3.1 Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
22.3.1.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
22.3.2 Attention Deficit Disorders
22.3.2.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
22.3.3 Epilepsy
22.3.3.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
22.3.4 Disorders of Nutrition and Weight
22.3.4.1 Anorexia Nervosa
22.3.4.2 Bulimia
Dental Findings and Treatment
22.3.4.3 Obesity
Dental Findings and Treatment
22.4 Diseases and Syndromes with Genetic Background
22.4.1 Down Syndrome
22.4.1.1 Clinical Features
22.4.1.2 Dental Findings and Treatment
22.4.2 Ectodermal Dysplasia
22.4.2.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
22.4.3 Cystic Fibrosis
22.4.3.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
22.4.4 Muscular Dystrophy
22.4.4.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
22.4.5 Familial Mediterranean Fever
22.4.5.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
22.4.6 Clefts
22.4.6.1 Dental Findings and Treatment
22.4.7 Osteogenesis Imperfecta
22.4.7.1 Bisphosphonates
22.4.7.2 Malocclusion
22.4.8 Other Syndromes and Craniofacial Anomalies
References
23: Child-Centred Dentistry: Engaging and Protecting Children
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Oral Health-Related Quality of Life
23.2.1 Measures Used
23.3 Decision-Making and Consent
23.3.1 Involving Children in Clinical Decisions
23.3.2 Principles of Consent
23.4 Safeguarding
23.5 Service Evaluation
23.5.1 PROMs and PREMs
23.6 Oral Health Research and Ethics
23.6.1 The Rationale for Child Engagement
23.6.2 Methodological Considerations
23.6.3 Ethical Issues
23.7 Conclusion
References
Index