Paclitaxel: Sources, Chemistry, Anticancer Actions, and Current Biotechnology

Cover
Front Matter
Copyright
Contributors
Preface
Introduction to cancer and treatment approaches
Introduction
About cancer biology: Causes and risk factors
Cancer types, classification, and grading
Therapeutic interventions for cancer
Surgical excision: A traditional and the effective one
Robotic-assisted surgery
Radiotherapy
Side effects of radiotherapy
Immunotherapy
Immune checkpoint inhibitors
Immunotherapy boosted by metronomic chemotherapy
Chemotherapy
History of chemotherapy
The principal mechanisms of chemotherapy
Classes of chemotherapeutic agents and their uses
Alkylating agents
Antimetabolites
Anthracyclines (Anti-tumor antibiotics)
Plant-derived anticancerous agents
Vinca Alkaloids (VA)
Taxanes
Camptothecin (CPT) and its derivatives
Advanced approaches for cancer treatment
Nanomedicines
Extracellular vesicles as drug delivery systems and diagnostic tool
Genome-based methods for cancer treatment
Thermal ablation and magnetic hyperthermia
Conclusions
References
Taxol: Occurrence, chemistry, and understanding its molecular mechanisms
Introduction
About taxol and its discovery
Natural resources of taxol
Chemistry of taxol
Mechanisms of action of taxol
Conclusion and future prospects
References
Taxol: Mechanisms of action against cancer, an update with current research
The discovery and evolution of Paclitaxel (Taxol)
Paclitaxel (Taxol) induces mitotic cell cycle arrest
Taxol induces microtubules stabilization
Mitotic slippage
Paclitaxel’s effect is dose-dependent
Taxol induces gene-directed apoptosis
Roles of Bcl-2 family in Taxol-induced apoptosis
Taxol activates JNK/SAPK to promote cell apoptosis
Taxol and calcium-dependent apoptosis
ER-calcium dependent apoptosis
Crosstalk between Bcl-2 and calcium homeostasis
Immunomodulation effects by Taxol
Taxol and regulatory T cells (Tregs)
Taxol and macrophages
Taxol and TLR4-dependent pathway
Taxol affects macrophages polarization
Resistance mechanisms of Taxol
Increased drug efflux by multi-drug resistance (MDR-1)
Altered expression of β -tubulins isotypes
Upregulation of Bcl-2 family proteins
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Application of nanocarriers for paclitaxel delivery and chemotherapy of cancer
Introduction
Nanoparticles
Pharmaceutical aspects of polymeric NPs preparation
Recent preclinical studies on paclitaxel NPs
Liposomes
Pharmaceutical aspects of liposome preparation
Recent preclinical studies on liposomes
Dendrimers
Micelles
Nanotubes
Niosomes
Proniosomes
Ethosomes
Microparticles
Carbon dots
Clinical trials
Overcoming paclitaxel resistance by using Nanocarriers
Selected patents for paclitaxel formulations
Conclusion
References
Strategies for enhancing paclitaxel bioavailability for cancer treatment
Introduction
Alternative paclitaxel sources
Semisynthesis
Chemical synthesis
Nursery cultivated Taxus
Heterologous expression systems
Fungal endophytes
Corylus avellana
Plant cell culture
Strategies of paclitaxel biosynthesis improvement in plant cell culture
Selection of high-producing cell lines
Optimization of culture conditions
Two-stage culture
Carbohydrate source
Phytohormones
Ethylene inhibitors
Precursor feeding
Elicitation strategy
In situ product removal and two-phase culture
Immobilization
Metabolic engineering
Reactivation of paclitaxel biosynthesis pathway
Co-culture of plant cells with paclitaxel-producing fungal endophyte(s)
Mathematical modeling for paclitaxel biosynthesis optimization
Concluding remarks and future perspectives
References
Botany of paclitaxel producing plants
History of taxol
Botany of Taxus
Classification of Taxus
Modern classification of Taxus species
Enumeration of taxol producing plant species
Austrotaxus spicata Campton (New Claedona Yew)
Pseudotaxus chienii (W.C. Cheng) W.C. Cheng (White Berry Yew)
Taxus baccata L. (European, English, or Common Yew)
Taxus brevifolia Nuttall
Taxus canadensis Marshall (Canada Yew)
Taxus chinensis (Pilg.) Rehd (Chinese Yew)
Taxus cuspidata Siebold et Zucc.
Taxus floridana Nuttall ex Chapman (Florida Yew)
Taxus globosa Schlectendahl (Mexican Yew)
Taxus meirei (Lemee & Lev.) S.Y. Hu ex T.S. Liu (Meires Yew)
Taxus sumatrana (Miquel) de Laubenfels (Tampinur batu)
Taxus wallichiana Zucc. (Himalayan Yew)
Taxol from angiosperms
Corylus avellana L. (common hazel or European hazel)
Conclusions and future direction
References
Propagation of paclitaxel biosynthesizing plants
Introduction
Propagation
Vegetative propagation of Taxus spp.
Micropropagation
Embryo and seed culture to overcome seed dormancy
Somatic embryogenesis
Explant sources for micropropagation
Callus proliferation and organogenesis
Shoot topophysis
Rooting and acclimatization
Conclusions
References
Endophytes for the production of anticancer drug, paclitaxel
Introduction
Paclitaxel sources in nature
Available approaches for paclitaxel production
Endophytes producing paclitaxel from different host plant species
Anticancer properties of endophytes-derived paclitaxel
Conclusions
References
Metabolic engineering strategies to enhance the production of anticancer drug, paclitaxel
Introduction
Historical perspective of paclitaxel
Metabolic engineering strategies for paclitaxel production
Modulating the metabolic engineering strategy
Increasing the precursor access
Modulating (enhancing or decreasing) the effectors
Regulation of transcriptional factors
Dual production of Phyto-metabolites
Metabolic engineering in heterologous systems
Plant cell cultures and elicitation approaches to enhance paclitaxel production
Conclusions
References
Paclitaxel and chemoresistance
Introduction
Mechanisms of chemoresistance
Alteration of microtubule dynamic
ABC transporters mediated MDR
Genetic factor-related paclitaxel resistance
Other potential mechanisms of resistance
PI3K/AKT activation
MAPK
Antioxidative systems
IRF9
Other key factors
Clinical markers of paclitaxel resistance
Strategies to overcome paclitaxel resistance
Overcoming paclitaxel resistance with novel tubulin inhibitors
Inhibiting the function of ABCB1 transporter
Inhibiting signal transduction pathways
Summary
References
Paclitaxel and cancer treatment: Non-mitotic mechanisms of paclitaxel action in cancer therapy
Introduction
Taxol/paclitaxel is a key agent in the management of solid tumors
Microtubule stabilization and anti-mitotic mechanisms
Mitotic catastrophe
Non-mitotic mechanisms
Importance of micronucleation
Innate immunity leading to the bystander effect
Cellular retention of paclitaxel
Combination therapy
Drug combination with paclitaxel: Carboplatin, FTI, CDK4/6, and PD1/PDL-1
Prospective: New formulation of paclitaxel and additional microtubule stabilizing drugs
Conclusions
References
An update on paclitaxel treatment in breast cancer
Introduction
Types of breast cancer
Molecular mechanism of paclitaxel in breast cancer
Paclitaxel treatment in different types of breast cancer
Metastatic breast cancer (MBC)
Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC)
Locally advanced breast cancer (LABC)
Molecular subtypes of breast cancer
Adverse events and resistance due to paclitaxel treatment
Side-effects
Paclitaxel resistance
Efficiency of other anti-cancer drugs over paclitaxel
Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Paclitaxel conjugated magnetic carbon nanotubes induce apoptosis in breast cancer cells and breast cancer stem cells in vitro
Introduction
Experimental details
Preparation of MWCNTs
PTX loading onto Au-Mag.MWCNTs surface
Characterizations
Cancer cell culture experiments in vitro
Detection of cytotoxicity—MTT assay
Flow cytometry
Detection of apoptosis
Antiproliferative studies on stem cells
Results and discussion
Physical characterization of PTX-Au-Mag.MWCNT complex
Biological characterization of PTX-Au-Mag.MWCNT complex
Cytotoxicity and apoptosis assay
Assay for determination of apoptosis of cancer stem cells
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflict of interest statement
References
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
L
M
N
O
P
R
S
T
U
V
W