Ortner's identification of pathological conditions in human skeletal remains

Ortner’s Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
A Tribute to Don Ortner
References
1 Introduction
History of the First Edition From Donald J. Ortner
Acknowledgments for the First Edition
History of the Second Edition From Donald J. Ortner
Acknowledgments for the Second Edition
Objectives of the First and Second Editions
History of the Third Edition From Jane E. Buikstra
Acknowledgments for the Third Edition
Objectives of the Third Edition
Format of the Volume
Abbreviations
References
2 A Brief History and 21st Century Challenges
A Brief History of Paleopathology
21st Century Paleopathology
Paleoepidemiology
Epidemiology and Paleoepidemiology
The Relationship Between Paleoepidemiology and Paleopathology
Paleoepidemiology and the Osteological Paradox
References
3 Themes in Paleopathology
Social and Identity Theory
Feminist and Gender Theory
The Intersectionality of Sex, Gender, and Age
Structural Violence
Ancient Humans and Impairment, Disability, and Care
Osteobiography in Paleopathology
References
4 Fundamentals of Human Bone and Dental Biology: Structure, Function, and Development
Skeletal Structure, Function, and Cellular Basis of Bone Biology
Evolution of the Vertebrate Skeleton
Gross Function and Anatomy
Bone Tissue: Composition and Organization
Cartilaginous Tissue
Bone Cells
Molecules and Signaling Pathways: Master Control Mechanisms
Skeletogenesis and Bone Modeling
Embryological and Developmental Processes
Bone Modeling
Endochondral Ossification
Intramembranous Ossification
The Facial Skeleton
Bone Remodeling
The Basic Multicellular Unit
Tooth Structure and Formation
Enamel
Dentin
Periodontal Ligament and Cementum
Tooth Morphogenesis
Conclusions
References
5 Abnormal Bone: Considerations for Documentation, Disease Process Identification, and Differential Diagnosis
Abnormal Bone: General Considerations and Gross Appearance
Description of Abnormal Bone
Differential Diagnosis
Cases of Abnormal Bone: Modeling Description, Identification, and Differential Diagnoses
Conclusion
References
6 Histomorphology: Deciphering the Metabolic Record
Introduction
Visualization of Histological Structures in Dry Bone
Histomorphology: Deciphering the Metabolic Record
The Cellular Basis of Bone Formation and Resorption
Remodeling and the Morphology of the BMU
Calculation of Remodeling Parameters From BSUs
Application of Remodeling Parameters to Pathological Cases and Archeological Skeletal Populations
Why Bones Break: Histomorphometric Assessment of Bone Strength and Fragility
Mechanical Loading Shapes the Material and Structural Properties of Bone Tissue
Bone Functional Adaptation
Mechanical Loading Modes Experienced by Bone
Material Properties and Bone Strength
Trade-Offs Between Strength and Toughness in Fracture Resistance
Normal Trajectory of Remodeling Rate Over the Lifespan
Describing Osteopenia and Osteoporosis in Modern Populations
Describing Bone Loss in Past Populations
Bone Strength at the Microscale: Microdamage as an Energy-Dissipating Mechanism
Morphology of Microdamage Depends on Loading Mode
Diffuse Microdamage as an Energy-Dissipating Mechanism
Microdamage Tends to Initiate at Stress-Concentrating Voids
Changes With Age: Increased Mineralization Accelerates Microdamage Accumulation
Changes With Age: Older Tissue Loses Osteocyte Sensitivity to Microdamage
Intraskeletal Variability in Microdamage Accumulation
Bone Strength at the Microscale: Lacunar-Canalicular Architecture Reflects Osteocyte Activity
Osteocyte Lacunar Density and Volume Increases With Higher Strain
Changes With Age: Osteocyte Lacunar Density Decreases
Changes With Age: Percent Occupied Lacunae Decreases
Changes With Age: Altered Lacunar-Canalicular Architecture
Osteocytic Osteolysis and Pathology
Bone Strength at the Microscale: Vascular Porosity Reflects Resorption Activity
Vascular Porosity Reflects Regional Mechanical Strain
Changes With Age: Increased Vascular Porosity Weakens Bone
Bone Strength at the Microscale: Secondary Osteon Size and Shape as Toughening Mechanisms
Small, Circular Osteons Are Associated With Higher Mechanical Strain
Mechanical Strain Directs Three-Dimensional Secondary Osteon Orientation
Changes With Age: Secondary Osteons Become Smaller and More Circular
Structural Properties of Whole Bone in Cross-Section
Radial Expansion of the Cross-Section Results From Growth in Bone Length
Sexual Dimorphism in Radial Expansion During Growth and Senescence
Sexual Dimorphism in Trabecular Bone Loss With Age
Estrogen Deficiency Also Contributes to Bone Loss in Elderly Men
Cortical Drift During Growth Alters Cross-Sectional Shape
Assessment of Axial Loading Differences Through the Relative Cortical Area
Cross-Sectional Shape as a Metric of Loading Direction
The Parabolic Index: An Overlooked Cross-Sectional Indicator of Osteoporosis
Pathology and Histomorphometry
Remodeling Processes Commonly Disrupted by Pathology
Pathological Alteration of Remodeling Rate Over the Lifespan
Pathological Alteration of Mineralization
Pathological Alteration of Collagen Deposition
Infection: Osteomyelitis
Cancer: Metastatic Bone Disease
Cancer: Osseous Bone Tumors
Imbalances of Bone Remodeling: Paget’s Disease of Bone (PDB)
Imbalances of Bone Remodeling: Osteopetrosis
Disorders of Bone Mineral Homeostasis: Rickets/Osteomalacia
Disorders of Bone Mineral Homeostasis: Hyperparathyroidism
Disorders of Bone Mineral Homeostasis: Hyperthyroidism
Disorders of Bone Mineral Homeostasis: Diabetes mellitus
Disorders of Bone Mineral Homeostasis: Glucocorticoid Excess
Collagen Disorders: Osteogenesis Imperfecta
Conclusion
References
7 The Role of Imaging in Paleopathology
Why Is Medical Imaging Important?
A Brief History of Radiology in Paleopathology
Basic Principles and Terminology
Radiographic Appearance of Pathologic Conditions
Mummies, Paleopathology, and Radiography
Other Bone Changes and Radiography
Harris Lines
Body Mass Calculations
Osteoporosis
Taphonomic Alterations
Other Imaging Modalities
Microcomputed Tomography
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Conclusion
References
8 Ancient DNA in the Study of Ancient Disease
Introduction to Ancient DNA
History/Trajectory of the Field
Current Methods
DNA Preservation
Sample Preparation and DNA Extraction
NGS Analyses
Microbiome Analyses
Applications of Ancient DNA
Ancient DNA of Pathogens That Can Leave Bony Changes: Leprosy, Tuberculosis, Brucellosis, Malaria, Syphilis
Leprosy
Tuberculosis
Brucellosis
Malaria
Syphilis
Mass Graves and “Invisible” Pathogens: Smallpox, Plague, Cholera, Enteric Dysentery, and Flu
Yersinia pestis
Smallpox
Food and Waterborne Outbreaks
Influenza
“Invisible” Pathogens (to the Paleopathological Record)
Parasites and Commensals (Lice, Worms, and the Microbiome)
Lice
Parasites in Feces
The Gut Microbiome
The Oral Microbiome
Future Prospects for Ancient Pathogen Research
References
9 Trauma
Introduction
Trauma
Pathology
Classification of Fractures
Fracture Mechanisms
Fracture Healing
Bony Sequelae of Trauma
Dental Trauma
Subluxation and Dislocation
Recording Trauma
Paleopathology
Introduction
Trauma Resulting From Intentional Violence
Fractures Resulting From Accidental Events
Fracture Treatment
Complications of Fracture
Dislocation (Luxation) and Subluxation
Trauma, Mortality, and Violence in Past Societies
Mortality Patterns in the Past
Organized Violence
Structural Violence
Child Abuse
Elder Abuse
Intimate Partner Abuse
Violence Directed Toward Bodies
Traumatic Surgical Interventions
Amputation
Trepanation
Sincipital T-Mutilation
Trauma to the Skeleton Through Cultural Modifications
Cranial Modification
Foot Binding
Waist Training
Dental Modification
Summary and Conclusions
References
10 Infectious Disease: Introduction, Periostosis, Periostitis, Osteomyelitis, and Septic Arthritis
Introduction
Humoral Versus Cellular Responses to Infectious Agents
Vascular Changes in Response to Infectious Agents
The Biology of Infection
Periostitis or Periostosis
Pathology
Periostosis in Particular Parts of the Skeleton
Paleopathology
Osteomyelitis
Pathology
Hematogenous Osteomyelitis
Infant Osteomyelitis
Adult Osteomyelitis
Changes in Specific Bones
Skull
Spine
Short Tubular Bones
Cancellous Bones
Paleopathology of Osteomyelitis
The Skull
Postcranial Osteomyelitis
Septic Arthritis
Pathology
Paleopathology
Summary
References
11 Bacterial Infections
Introduction
Tuberculosis
Introduction
Pathology
Statistical Data
General Pattern of Bone and Joint Tuberculosis
The Spine
The Hip
The Knee
The Ankle (Distal Tibia and Fibula) and Tarsal Bones
The Tubular Bones of the Hands and Feet
The Shoulder
The Elbow
The Wrist and Carpal Bones
The Shaft of Long Bones
Ribs
Sternum
The Skull
Cranial Vault
Cranial Base
Facial Bones
Paleopathology
Old World Evidence
New World Evidence
Was There Pre-Columbian Tuberculosis?
Phylogeography of American Tuberculosis
Skeletal Examples
Leprosy
Introduction
Pathology
Direct Effects of M. leprae
Indirect Effects of M. leprae
Periostosis of Limb Bones
Other Bone Changes Associated With Leprosy
Diagnosis of Leprosy in Skeletal Remains
Paleopathology
Naestved, Denmark
Chichester, England
Treponematosis, Treponemal Infection, or Treponemal Disease (TD)
Introduction
Pathology
Yaws
Bejel (or Endemic Syphilis or Treponarid)
Venereal Syphilis (VS)
The Skull
The Spine
The Long Bones
The Joints
Congenital Syphilis (CS)
Paleopathology
Historical Documents
Skeletal Remains
Theories of Disease Evolution
Molecular Evidence
Skeletal Examples
Congenital Syphilis
Adult Treponemal Disease
Brucellosis
Introduction
Pathology
Paleopathology
Glanders
Pathology
Actinomycosis and Nocardiosis
Pathology
Plague
Introduction
Paleopathology
References
12 Fungal, Viral, Multicelled Parasitic, and Protozoan Infections
Fungal Infections
Introduction
Pathology
North American Blastomycosis
Paracoccidioidomycosis
Cryptococcosis
Coccidioidomycosis
Histoplasmosis
Mucormycosis (Phycomycosis and Zygomycosis)
Mycetoma (Maduromycosis)
Sporotrichosis
Aspergillosis
Paleopathology of Fungal Infections
Viral Infections
Introduction
Pathology
Smallpox (Variola)
Rubella
Poliomyelitis
Paget’s Disease
Skull
Long Bones
Spine
Flat Bones
Paget’s Disease Sarcoma
Paleopathology of Viral Infections
Smallpox
Poliomyelitis
Paget’s Disease
Multicelled Parasitic Infections
Introduction
Pathology
Echinococcosis
Paleopathology of Multicelled Parasitic Infections
Protozoan Infections
Pathology
Leishmaniasis
Malaria
Paleopathology of Protozoan Infections
Leishmaniasis
Malaria
Sarcoidosis
Introduction
Pathology
References
13 Parasitology
Bringing Ortner Forward in Time and Application: Echinococcus granulosus
Archeological Data Violating Clinical Predictions Signal Fruitful Areas of Investigation: The Case of Enterobius vermicularis
Chagas Disease, Mummies, and Molecular Biology: Adjusting Clinical Perspectives
Lice Reflect Social Organization, Interaction, and Privation
Medicines and Dietary Analysis
Cemetery Studies: Korea and Central Russia AD 1500–1800
Conclusion
References
14 Circulatory, Reticuloendothelial, and Hematopoietic Disorders
Circulatory Disorders
Blood Supply of Bones
Osteonecrosis
Paleopathology
Necrosis of the Femoral Head
Paleopathology
Legg–Calvé–Perthes Disease and Slipped Femoral Capital Epiphysis
Paleopathology
Other Disorders Associated With Osteonecrosis
Köhler’s Disease of the Tarsal Navicular
Freiberg’s Disease of a Metatarsal Head
Other Diseases Associated With Trauma and Vascular Deficiency
Osteochondritis Dissecans
Paleopathology
Osgood–Schlatter Disease
Paleopathology
Scheuermann’s Disease
Paleopathology
Hypertrophic (Pulmonary) Osteoarthropathy
Paleopathology
Aneurysmal Erosion
Paleopathology
Reticuloendothelial Disorders
Lipid Storage Diseases
Gaucher’s Disease
Niemann–Pick Disease
Other Lipidoses
Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis (Histiocytosis X)
Paleopathology
Hematopoietic Disorders
Anemias
Thalassemia
Sickle Cell Anemia and Its Genetic Variants
Hereditary Spherocytosis (Congenital Hemolytic Anemia)
Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Erythroblastosis Fetalis
Paleopathology of Anemia
Thalassemia and Sickle Cell Anemia
Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Leukemia
Myeloma
Paleopathology
References
15 Metabolic Disease
Introduction
Vitamin C Deficiency
Subadult Scurvy
Paleopathology
Adult Scurvy
Paleopathology
Vitamin D Deficiency
Rickets
Paleopathology
Osteomalacia
Paleopathology
Co-occurrence of Rickets and Scurvy
Osteoporosis
Methods in the Study of Osteoporosis in Paleopathology
Measurement of Bone Quantity
Measurement of Bone Quality
Paleopathology
Conclusion
Fluorosis
Paleopathology
Hyperostosis Frontalis Interna
Paleopathology
References
16 Endocrine Disturbances
Introduction
Pituitary Disturbances
Pathology
Pituitary Gigantism
Acromegaly
Hypopituitarism
Pituitary Dwarfism
Paleopathology
Gigantism
Acromegaly
Pituitary Dwarfism
Other Endocrine Disturbances
Introduction
Pathology
Hypothyroidism
Hyperthyroidism
Cushing’s Disease
Hypogonadism
Hypergonadism
Hypoparathyroidism
Albright’s Hereditary Osteodystrophy
Hyperparathyroidism
Primary Hyperparathyroidism (Osteitis Fibrosa Cystica Generalisata)
Secondary Hyperparathyroidism
Paleopathology
Hypothyroidism
Albright’s Hereditary Osteodystrophy
Hyperparathyroidism
References
17 Congenital and Neuromechanical Abnormalities of the Skeleton
Introduction
Skull
Pathology
Anencephaly
Cleft Lip and/or Palate
Congenital Herniations
Premature Suture Closure
Hydrocephalus
Paleopathology
Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate
Congenital Herniation
Hydrocephalus
Biparietal Fenestra
Premature Fusion of Sutures
Spine
Pathology
Spina Bifida
Congenital Kyphosis and Lordosis
Scoliosis
Sacralization and Lumbarization
Klippel–Feil Syndrome
Spondylolysis
Postparalytic Deformities of the Spine
Paleopathology
Scoliosis
Spina Bifida
Klippel–Feil Syndrome
Spondylolysis
Ribs and Sternum
Pathology and Paleopathology
Pelvis
Pathology
Paleopathology
Extremities
Pathology
Postparalytic Deformities of the Appendicular Skeleton
Paleopathology
Postparalytic Deformities
References
18 Skeletal Dysplasias and Related Conditions
Introduction
Defects in Endochondral Bone Formation
Achondroplasia
Pathology
Thanatophoric Dwarfism
Paleopathology
Multiple Epiphyseal Dysplasias
Paleopathology
Acromesomelia
Léri–Weill Dyschondrosteosis
Paleopathology
Mucopolysaccharidosis
Pathology
Defects in Intramembranous Bone Formation
Osteogenesis Imperfecta
Pathology
Type I (A and B) Osteogenesis Imperfecta
Type II Osteogenesis Imperfecta
Types III and IV Osteogenesis Imperfecta
Paleopathology
Cleidocranial Dysplasia
Pathology
Osteopetrosis
Pathology
Malignant Osteopetrosis
Metaphyseal Dysplasia (Pyle’s Disease)
Pathology
Paleopathology
Progressive Diaphyseal Dysplasia (Camurati–Engelmann’s Disease)
Pathology
Palaeopathology
Melorheostosis (Leri’s Disease)
Pathology
Osteopoikilosis
Pathology
Osteopathia Striata
Pathology
Paleopathology
References
19 Tumors of Bone
Introduction
Principles of Diagnosis
Paleopathology
Primary Benign Tumors
Pathology
Osteogenic Tumors
Osteoma
Osteoid Osteoma
Osteoblastoma
Chondrogenic Tumors
Chondroma
Osteochondroma
Chondroblastoma
Bizarre Parosteal Osteochondromatous Proliferation and Subungual Exostosis
Chondromyxoid Fibroma
Fibrogenic, Fibrohistiocytic, and Fibro-Osseous Lesions
Desmoplastic Fibroma
Nonossifying Fibroma and Benign Fibrous Histiocytoma
Fibrous Dysplasia
Osteofibrous Dysplasia
Osteoclastic Giant Cell-Rich Tumors
Giant Cell Tumor of Bone
Vascular Tumors
Hemangioma and Vascular Malformations
Epithelioid Hemangioma
Meningioma
Cystic Lesions
Simple Bone Cysts
Aneurysmal Bone Cyst
Intraosseous Epidermal Cyst and Dermoid Cyst
Paleopathology
Osteogenic Tumors
Osteoma
Osteoid Osteoma and Osteoblastoma
Chondrogenic Tumors
Chondroma
Osteochondroma
Chondroblastoma
Fibrogenic, Fibrohistocytic, and Fibro-Osseous Lesions
Nonossifying Fibroma
Fibrous Dysplasia
Osteoclastic Giant Cell-Rich Tumors
Giant Cell Tumor of Bone
Vascular Tumors
Hemangioma and Vascular Anomalies
Meningioma
Cystic Lesions
Primary Malignant Bone Tumors
Pathology
Osteosarcoma
Chondrosarcoma
Ewing Sarcoma of Bone
Chordoma
Adamantinoma
Paleopathology
Bone Metastases
Pathology
Biology of Bone Metastases
Diagnostic Features
Paleopathology
Abbreviations
Carina Marques
References
20 Joint Disease
Osteoarthritis
A Note on Nomenclature
Pathophysiology of Osteoarthritis
Types of Osteoarthritis
Precipitants of Osteoarthritis
Paleopathological Diagnosis
The Distribution of Osteoarthritis in the Skeleton
Particular Features of Osteoarthritis in Different Joints
Effects of Osteoarthritis During Life
Osteoarthritis and Occupation
Other Conditions With Proliferation or Eburnation
The Erosive Arthropathies
Rheumatoid Arthritis
The Sero-Negative Arthropathies
Ankylosing Spondylitis
Reactive Arthropathy
Psoriatic Arthropathy
Enteropathic Arthropathy
Some General Comments on the Sero-Negative Arthropathies
Erosive Osteoarthritis
The Crystal Arthropathies
Gout
Septic Arthropathy
References
21 The Dentition: Development, Disturbances, Disease, Diet, and Chemistry
Introduction
Dental Development
Dentin
Enamel
Disturbances in Dental Development
Abnormal Quality of Teeth: Disturbance of Dentin Development
Pathology
Paleopathology
Abnormal Quality of Teeth: Disturbance of Enamel Development
Pathology
Palaeopathology
Abnormal Quality of Teeth: The Effects of Disease
Pathology
Paleopathology
Abnormal Quantity of Teeth and Dental Crowding
Pathology
Paleopathology
Abnormal Size of Teeth
Pathology
Paleopathology
Dental Anomalies
Pathology
Paleopathology
Dental Discoloration
Pathology
Paleopathology
Identifying Dental Wear and Oral Disease
Dental Wear
Pathology
Paleopathology
Caries
Pathology
Paleopathology
Alveolar Lesions
Pathology
Paleopathology
Other Miscellaneous Conditions of the Oral Cavity
Pathology
Odontogenic Cysts: Pathology and Paleopathology
Odontogenic Tumors: Pathology and Paleopathology
Nonodontogenic Cysts and Tumors: Pathology and Paleopathology
Hyperostosis/Tori: Pathology and Paleopathology
Antemortem Tooth Loss
Pathology
Paleopathology
Periodontal Disease
Pathology
Paleopathology
Interpreting Oral Health
Sex Differences in Oral Health
Oral Health and Demographic Transitions
Dental Chemistry
Introduction
Paleodietary Reconstruction: Bulk Stable Isotope Analysis Background
Paleodietary Reconstruction: Bulk Stable Isotope Analysis in Bioarcheological Research
Paleodietary Reconstruction: Compound-Specific Isotope Analysis Background
Paleodietary Reconstruction: Compound-Specific Isotope Analysis in Bioarcheological Research
Paleodietary Reconstruction: Trace Elements Background
Paleodietary Reconstruction: Trace Elements in Bioarcheological Research
Patterns of Breastfeeding and Weaning: Background
Patterns of Breastfeeding and Weaning: The Bioarcheological Research
Understanding Stress and Disease From Chemical Analyses: Background
Understanding Stress and Disease From Chemical Analyses: The Bioarcheological Research
Human Mobility and Migration: Background
Human Mobility and Migration: The Bioarcheological Research
Dental Calculus
Pathology: Dental Calculus Formation
Paleopathology: Microparticle Analyses of Dental Calculus in Bioarcheology
Paleopathology: Chemical Analyses of Dental Calculus for Bioarcheological Research
Paleopathology: aDNA and Protein Analyses of Dental Calculus for Bioarcheological Research
References
22 Mummies and Paleopathology
Paleopathological Examination of Mummies
Endoscopy
Tissue Histology
Mummy Paleopathology
Neoplasms
Infectious Diseases
Parasitic and Helminth Diseases (See Also Chapter 14)
Other Diseases of Visceral Organs
Lesions, Trauma, and Cause of Death
Conclusion
References
23 Nonhuman Animal Paleopathology—Are We so Different?
Introduction
Research Foci Within Nonhuman Animal Paleopathology
Areas of Departure
Areas of Commonality
Toward Closer Integration
Acknowledgments
References
24 Postscript
The Future of Paleopathology
References
Index