Organ Development

Copyright
Contributors
Preface
A Note About the Authors
Chasing Mavericks: The quest for defining developmental waves of hematopoiesis
Introduction
HSC emergence: Where, when, and how?
Cellular origins of HSCs: Hemangioblast versus hemogenic endothelium
Are HSCs specified multiple times in distinct locations?
Molecular regulation of HSC specification
What are the molecular drivers of HSC specification and maintenance?
Phenotypic and functional heterogeneity within the HSPC pool
Extensive transcriptome heterogeneity of cell populations
Functional heterogeneity of hematopoietic progenitor populations
Do all HSCs persist?
Purpose of developmental waves
Immune system layering
Conclusion and future directions
Acknowledgments
Author contributions
Competing interests
References
Further reading
Signals and forces shaping organogenesis of the small intestine
Generation and growth of the intestinal tube
Embryonic origins of the murine small intestine
Shaping the intestinal tube
Formation of the convoluted intestinal tract
Intestinal elongation
Patterning and regionalization
The pylorus: The anterior intestinal boundary
Signaling crosstalk: Endoderm/mesoderm interactions in gut tube patterning
Regionalization within the small intestine: Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
Villus development
Signals and physical forces driving formation of the villi
Mesenchymal factors controlling villus development
Epithelial factors important in villus emergence
Making crypts
Organoid systems to study intestinal development
Summary
References
Consider the lung as a sensory organ: A tip from pulmonary neuroendocrine cells
Overview: Lung as a sensory organ
PNEC lineage origin and specification
PNEC innervation
PNECs in lung development
PNEC function as progenitors and progenitor niches
PNEC function in response to airway inputs
As an immune modulator
Activation by hypoxia, carbon dioxide and acid
Activation by nicotine
Activation by stretch
PNECs in chronic lung diseases
Pulmonary neuroendocrine cells in cancer
Concluding remarks
References
Molecular regulation of mammalian hepatic architecture
Hepatic specification
Establishment of hepatic competence by pioneer factors
The onset of hepatic morphogenesis
Hepatic specification by signals from adjacent mesoderm tissues
Chromatin basis of fate choice for liver versus pancreas
Hepatic architecture
Hepatocyte cell fate decision
Molecular regulation of hepatocyte differentiation
Models for postnatal hepatocyte differentiation
Potential epigenetic regulators of enhancer switching
Potential role of alternative histones
Molecular regulation of hepatocyte zonation
Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathway
Hedgehog signaling pathway
Other key signaling molecules involved in hepatocyte zonation
Hepatocyte zonation is dynamic
Cholangiocyte cell fate decision and intrahepatic bile duct morphogenesis
Intrahepatic bile duct formation
Cholangiocyte specification
Transient primitive ductal structure as part of tubulogenesis
Three-dimensional view of tubulogenesis
Molecular regulation of intrahepatic bile duct formation
Notch signaling pathway
Tgfb signaling pathway
Other pathways with Notch-dependent and -independent mechanisms of IHBD formation
Conclusions
References
Further reading
Connecting muscle development, birth defects, and evolution: An essential role for muscle connective tissue
Introduction
Axial muscle
Cranial muscle
Limb muscle
Diaphragm
Conclusion
References
Vascularizing organogenesis: Lessons from developmental biology and implications for regenerative medicine
Introduction
EC development, heterogeneity, and the challenges we face
Vasculogenesis and angiogenesis
Endothelial heterogeneity
Organotypic blood vessels: Challenges facing the field
Vascular morphogenesis in specific organ systems
Pancreas
Overview of pancreatic vascular development
Endothelium regulates early pancreatic morphogenesis
The evolving role of ECs in pancreatic morphogenesis
Endothelium regulates endocrine fates
Lung
Overview of pulmonary vascular development
Distinct origins determine the role of the pulmonary vasculature
Lung blood vessels influence lung development and maturation
Pulmonary pericyte signals to lung epithelium
Lung regeneration: Vascular contributions
Kidney
Blood vessels mirror nephron development
Kidney epithelium and endothelium grow and expand coordinately
New paradigms of the vasculature in nephrogenesis
Factors regulating glomerular development
Renal arterial specification and development
Patterning of the peritubular capillaries and vasa recta
``Therapeutic´´ development: Using development to guide regenerative medicine
Using organoids to generate de novo replacement kidney tissue
Technical challenges of kidney organoids
Organoid vascularization: Endogenous versus exogenous origins
Importance of hemodynamic flow for vascular stability
Engineering blood vessels for transplantable organs
The road ahead: Tackling challenges to create transplantable vascularized organs
Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
References
Pancreas organogenesis: The interplay between surrounding microenvironment(s) and epithelium-intrinsic factors
Overview of embryonic pancreas development
The pancreatic microenvironment
Early tissue interactions underlying pancreatic fate specification
The pancreatic mesenchyme
Mesenchymal signaling molecules
FGF signaling pathway
TGFβ/BMP signaling pathway
Notch signaling pathway
Hedgehog signaling pathway
Retinoids signaling pathway
Epidermal growth factor (EGF) signaling pathway
Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) signaling pathway
Wingless/integrated (Wnt)signaling pathway
Extracellular matrix molecules
Blood vessels
Neural crest-derived cells
Implications for directed differentiation of pluripotent stem cells into pancreatic β-cells
Open questions and future directions
Acknowledgments
References
Gametogenesis: A journey from inception to conception
Germ cell specification and gonadal morphogenesis
PGC specification and migration
Gonadogenesis and sex determination
Germ cell sex determination
Oogenesis
Oocyte differentiation and primordial follicle formation
Primordial follicle activation
Follicle development, selection, and oocyte maturation
Spermatogenesis
First wave of spermatogenesis
Models for spermatogenesis
Germ cell-Soma communication: Genes/pathways regulating spermatogonial cells
GnRH-FSH-LH signaling
GDNF-RET-GFRA1 signaling
FGF2-MAP2K1 signaling
Chemokine signaling
Retinoic acid (RA) signaling
Androgen signaling
Epigenetic reprogramming in PGCs, gametes, and early embryos
Epigenetic reprogramming of germ cells
Chromatin dynamics from sex determination through gametogenesis
Early embryos
In vitro gametogenesis
Conclusion
References
Genetics of scapula and pelvis development: An evolutionary perspective
Introduction
Anatomy and function
Evolutionary history
Scapula development
Embryonic and fetal scapula development
Postnatal scapula development
Pelvic development
Embryonic and fetal pelvic development
Postnatal pelvic development: Secondary ossification and biomechanical responses
Postnatal pelvic development: Sexual dimorphism
Genetic networks
Genetic control of scapula development
Genetic control of pelvis development
Hierarchical roles of Pbx genes in girdle patterning and morphogenesis
Cis-regulatory evolution of the pelvis and scapula
Conclusions and future directions
Acknowledgments
References
Eye organogenesis: A hierarchical view of ocular development
Introduction
Cornea
Epithelium
Endothelium
Stroma
Lens
Lens morphogenesis
Lens differentiation
Eye field specification
Optic vesicle evagination
Optic vesicle/cup patterning and morphogenesis
Ciliary body and iris
Epithelium
Stroma
Neural retina
Retinal ganglion cells
Cones, rods, and bipolar cells
Amacrine and horizontal cells
Müller glia
Retina pigmented epithelium
Specification
Differentiation
Summary
References
Fluid forces shape the embryonic heart: Insights from zebrafish
Introduction
Examination of fluid forces in zebrafish
Techniques for quantification of fluid forces in the vasculature
Techniques for analysis of flow parameters in the heart
Hemodynamics and cardiovascular morphogenesis
Fluid forces regulate multiple aspects of vessel development
Chamber emergence requires hemodynamic inputs
Retrograde flow drives atrioventricular canal differentiation
Functional regulation of ventricular trabeculation
Summary and future directions
References
New perspectives on the mechanisms establishing the dorsal-ventral axis of the spinal cord
Functional organization of the adult spinal cord
The organization of the embryonic spinal cord along the dorsal-ventral axis
The specification of dorsal and ventral patterning in the spinal cord
The Hh signaling pathway
Shh acts as a canonical morphogen in ventral patterning
The Shh gradient is interpreted by a code of Gli transcription factors
Shh also functions as a temporal morphogen
The RA signaling pathway
The specification of dorsal patterning in the dorsal spinal cord
The BMP signaling pathway
BMPs were first proposed to signal as morphogens to pattern the dorsal spinal cord
BMPs have distinct roles directing dorsal spinal fates
The specification of dorsal spinal fate may be discontinuous
Wnt signaling controls dorsal progenitor proliferation and patterning
Looking ahead: What does knowledge of these manipulations mean for spinal cord regeneration?
References
Development, repair, and regeneration of the limb musculoskeletal system
Introduction
Development
Skeleton
Tendon
Muscle
Establishing limb pattern and morphology
Injury repair and regeneration
Skeleton
Tendon
Muscle
Musculoskeletal stromal progenitor and stem cells
Skeletal stem cells/bone marrow MSCs
Tendon stem/progenitor cells
Muscle: Satellite cells and stromal progenitors
Conclusion/perspective
References