Optical Switching: Device Technology and Applications in Networks

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Part A Introduction
Introduction
A. Optical Communication Networks
A.1 Historical Perspective
A.2 Essential Background
B. Optical Switching in Networks
B.1 Historical Perspective
B.2 Essential Background
C.Organization of This Book
Bibliography
Part B Switch Characterization
Chapter 1 Optical Switches
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Electro-Optical Switching
1.2.1 Working Principle of Electro-Optical Switches
1.2.2 Realization of Electro-Optical Switches
1.3 Acoustic-Optical Switching
1.3.1 Types of Acoustic-Optical Switching
1.3.2 Acoustic-Optical Device Materials and Applications
1.4 Thermo-Optical Switching
1.4.1 Working Principle of Thermo-Optical Switches
1.4.2 Realization of Thermo-Optical Switches
1.4.3 Thermo-Optical Switch Materials and Applications
1.5 Liquid Crystal-Optical Switching
1.5.1 Types of Liquid Crystal-Optical Switches
1.5.2 Liquid Crystal-Optical Switch Applications
1.6 Photonic Crystal Optical Switching
1.7 Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA) Optical Switching
1.8 Magneto-Optical (MO) Optical Switching
1.9 Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Optical Switching
1.10 Metasurfaces Switches
1.11 Conclusion
Bibliography
Chapter 2 Electro-Optic Switches
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Operating Principles
2.2.1 Operating Principles of the Single-Mode Switch
2.2.2 Operating Principles of the Multimode Switch
2.3 Materials for the Fabrication of Electro-Optic Switch
2.3.1 Ferroelectric Materials
2.3.2 Compound Semiconductors
2.3.3 Polymers
2.4 Device Structures of Electro-Optical Switches
2.4.1 1 × 1 Switch
2.4.2 1 × 2 Switch
2.4.3 2 × 2 Switch
2.4.4 2 × 3 Switch
2.4.5 3 × 2 Switch
2.4.6 3 × 3 Switch
2.4.7 1 × 4 Switch
2.4.8 2 × 4 Switch
2.5 Conclusions
Bibliography
Chapter 3 Thermo-Optical Switches
3.1 History of Thermal Optical Switching
3.2 Principles of Thermo-Optic Switch
3.2.1 Thermo-Optic Effect
3.2.2 Trade-Off Between Switching Time and Power Consumption
3.2.3 Merits of Thermo-Optic Switch
3.3 Category
3.3.1 Material
3.3.2 Implementation Principle
3.3.3 Device Architecture
3.4 Scalability
3.4.1 Binary Tree
3.4.2 Modified Crossbar
3.4.3 Benes
3.5 Application Scenarios
Bibliography
Chapter 4 Magneto-Optical Switches
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Types of Optical Switch
4.1.2 How Does an Optical Switch Work?
4.1.3 Applications of Optical Switches
4.2 All-Optical Switch
4.2.1 Why is an All-Optical Switch Useful?
4.3 Magneto-Optical Switches
4.3.1 Magneto-Optical Switch Features
4.3.2 Principles of Magneto-Optical Switches
4.3.3 Magneto-Optic Effect
4.4 Faraday Rotation
4.4.1 Phenomenological Model
4.4.2 Atomic Model
Bibliography
Further Reading
Chapter 5 Acousto-Optic Switches
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Fundamentals of Acousto-Optic Effect
5.3 Acousto-Optic Diffraction
5.4 Raman–Nath Diffraction
5.5 Bragg Diffraction
5.6 Principle of Operation of AO Switches
5.7 Acousto-Optic Modulator
5.7.1 Acousto-Optic Q-Switching
5.7.2 Telecommunication Network
5.8 Recent Trends and Applications
5.8.1 Emerging Spatial Mode Conversion in Few-Mode Fibers
5.8.2 Lithium Niobate Thin Films
5.8.3 Optical Fiber Communication and Networking
Bibliography
Chapter 6 MEMS-based Optical Switches
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Micromachining Techniques
6.2.1 Bulk Micromachining
6.2.2 Surface Micromachining
6.3 Switch Architectures
6.3.1 One-Dimensional Switches
6.3.2 Two-Dimensional MEMS Switches
6.3.3 Three-Dimensional MEMS Switches
6.4 Mechanisms of Actuations
6.4.1 Electrostatic Actuation
6.4.2 Magnetic Actuation
6.4.3 Thermal Actuation
6.4.4 Piezoelectric Actuation Mechanisms
6.4.5 Other Actuation Mechanisms
6.5 Optical Switch Parameters
6.5.1 Switching Time
6.5.2 Insertion Loss
6.5.3 Crosstalk
6.5.4 Wavelength
6.5.5 Power Consumption
6.6 Challenges
6.6.1 Optical Beam Divergence
6.6.2 Angular Control
6.6.3 Reliability of Optical MEMS
6.7 Conclusion
Bibliography
Chapter 7 SOA-based Optical Switches
7.1 Introduction
7.2 SOA Structure
7.2.1 Active Region
7.2.2 Inter-Band Versus Intra-Band Transition
7.2.3 Transparency Threshold
7.2.4 Gain Nonlinearity
7.2.5 Polarization-Insensitive SOA
7.2.6 Noise in SOA
7.3 Design Criteria of SOA-Based Switch
7.3.1 Effect of Doping on Gain Dynamics
7.3.2 Gain Dynamic for SOA
7.3.3 Noise Suppression
7.3.4 Scalability
7.4 Advancements on SOA-Based Switch
7.5 Networks Employing SOA-Based Switch
7.5.1 Metro-Access Network
7.5.2 RF Network
7.5.3 Silicon Photonic Switching
7.5.4 Data Center Network
7.6 Discussion and Future Work
Bibliography
Chapter 8 Liquid Crystal Switches
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Liquid Crystal and Its Properties
8.3 LC Structures for Optical Switching
8.3.1 Twisted Nematic (TN) cells
8.3.2 Surface-Stabilized Ferroelectric Liquid Crystal (SSFLC) Cells
8.3.3 Spatial Light Modulator (SLM) Cells
8.4 Liquid Crystal Switches
8.4.1 Optical Crystal Switching Architectures
8.4.2 Switches Based on Polarization
8.4.3 LC Amplitude and Phase Modulator
8.4.4 LC-Based Wavelength-Selective Switches (WSS)
8.5 The Future of LC switches
8.5.1 Liquid Crystal Photonic Crystal Fibers
8.5.2 Ring Resonators with LC
Bibliography
Chapter 9 Photonic Crystal All-Optical Switches
9.1 Idea of Photonics
9.2 Principles of Photonic Crystal All-Optical Switches (AOS)
9.3 Growth and Characterization of Optical Quantum Dots
9.3.1 Integration of PhCs-Based AOS with Optical Quantum Dots (QDs)
9.3.2 Growth and Characterization of Quantum Dots
9.4 Design and Fabrication
9.4.1 Sample Preparation
9.4.2 Lithography
9.4.3 Etching
9.5 Device Structure and Performance Analysis of Photonic Crystal All-Optical Switches
9.6 Challenges and Recent Research Trends of Photonic Crystal All-Optical Switches
Bibliography
Chapter 10 Optical-Electrical-Optical (O-E-O) Switches
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Optical Switching Technologies: Working Principle
10.2.1 Optical-Electrical-Optical Switching
10.2.2 Optical Data Unit Switching
10.2.3 Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer (ROADM)-Based Switching
10.2.4 A hybrid approach
10.3 Optical Transponders
10.3.1 WDM Transponders: An Introduction
10.3.2 Basic Working of Optical Transponders
10.3.3 Necessity of Optical Transponder (OEO) in WDM System
10.3.4 Applications of Optical Transponders
10.3.5 Network Structure with Optical Transponder
10.3.6 Differences Between Transponder, Muxponder, and Transceiver
10.3.7 Summary
10.4 Performance Analysis Study of All-Optical Switches, Electrical Switches, and Hybrid Switches in Networks
10.4.1 Introduction
10.4.2 Optical vs. Electrical vs. Hybrid Telecom Switches
10.4.3 Optical vs. Electrical vs. Hybrid Data Center Switches
10.4.4 Summary
10.5 Electrical and Optoelectronic Technology for Promoting Connectivity in Future Systems
10.5.1 CMOS Technology
10.5.2 Considerations for Selection of Interconnects
10.6 Conclusion
Bibliography
Chapter 11 Quantum Optical Switches
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Quantum Dot as an Optical Switch
11.2.1 Vertical Cavities
11.2.2 Power Density
11.3 Quantum Well as an Optical Switch
11.3.1 Optical Properties
11.3.2 Self-Electro-Optic-Effect Devices
11.4 Optomechanical Systems as Optical Switch
11.4.1 Optical Nonlinearity
11.4.2 Hybrid Optomechanics
11.4.3 Electro-opto Mechanics
11.5 Conclusion and Future Outlook
Bibliography
Chapter 12 Nonlinear All-Optical Switch
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Classification of All-Optical Switches
12.2.1 Thermo-Optical Switch
12.2.2 Acousto-Optic Switch
12.2.3 Liquid Crystal Optical Switch
12.2.4 Nonlinear Optical Switch
12.3 Classification of Nonlinear All-Optical Switches
12.3.1 Optical Coupler AOS
12.3.2 Sagnac Interferometer AOS
12.3.3 M–Z Interferometer AOS
12.3.4 Ring Resonator AOS
12.3.5 Fiber Grating AOS
12.4 Working Methodology of Different Types of Nonlinear All-Optical Switches
12.4.1 Optical Coupler AOS
12.4.2 Sagnac Interferometer AOS
12.4.3 M–Z Interferometer AOS
12.4.4 Ring Resonator AOS
12.4.5 Fiber Grating AOS
12.5 Nanoscale AOS
12.6 Future Scope and Conclusion
Bibliography
Chapter 13 Silicon Photonic Switches
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Performance Parameters
13.3 Silicon Photonic Platform
13.4 Physical Principles for Operation of Switches
13.4.1 Electro-optic Effect
13.4.2 Carrier Injection/Extraction
13.4.3 Thermo-optic Effect
13.4.4 All-optical Effect
13.5 Major Configurations
13.5.1 Directional Coupler
13.5.2 Microring Resonator
13.5.3 Mach–Zehnder Interferometer
13.5.4 Micro-Electro-Mechanical System
13.6 Hybrid Silicon Photonic Switches
13.6.1 III-V Materials
13.6.2 2D Materials
13.6.3 Phase Change Materials
13.7 Switch Fabrics Using MRR and MZI
13.8 Summary
Bibliography
Part C Application of Optical Switches in Networks
Chapter 14 Switch Control: Bridging the Last Mile for Optical Data Centers
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Switch Control Classification
14.2.1 Electrical Switch Control
14.2.2 Slow Optical Switch Control
14.2.3 Fast Optical Switch Control
14.3 Challenges for Switch Fabric Control
14.3.1 Scalable Control Plane
14.3.2 Precise Time Synchronization
14.3.3 Fast Burst Clock Data Recovery
14.3.4 Lack of Optical Buffer
14.3.5 Reliability
14.4 Switch Fabric Control: State of the Art
14.4.1 Predefined Control
14.4.2 SDN Control
14.4.3 Label Control
14.4.4 AI Control
Bibliography
Chapter 15 Reliability in Optical Networks
15.1 Introduction
15.2 RAMS in Optical Networks
15.3 Objectives
15.4 Life Cycle of a Product/Project
15.5 Preamble to RAMS
15.5.1 Reliability
15.5.2 Availability
15.5.3 Maintainability
15.5.4 System Safety
15.6 Significance of Reliability in Optical Interconnect Systems
15.7 Typical Components of Optical Circuitry
15.8 Generic Types of Optical System
15.8.1 Factors Influencing Reliability in Optical Networks
15.8.2 Initial Insight of Failures
15.9 Ensuring RAMS for the Optical System
15.9.1 Reliability – An Essential Insight
15.9.2 Availability Measures of Optical Networks
15.9.3 Maintainability Aspects of Optical Networks
15.9.4 Optical Networks for Safety-Critical Applications
15.10 Process Control in Optical Components
15.11 Hardware – Software Interactions (HSI) in Optical Networks
15.12 Typical RAMS Realisation Plan for an Optical System
15.12.1 System-level RAMS Activities
15.12.2 Item-level RAMS Activities
15.13 Trade-off Factors of Optical Networks
15.14 Some Open Problems in RAMS-Optical System
15.15 Conclusion
Bibliography
Chapter 16 Protection, Restoration, and Improvement
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Objectives of Protection and Restoration
16.3 Current Fault Protection and Restoration Techniques
16.3.1 Link Protection
16.3.2 Path Protection
16.4 Energy Efficiency of Optical Switching Technology
16.5 Signal Quality Monitoring Techniques
16.6 Challenges and Recent Research Trends
16.7 Conclusion
Bibliography
Chapter 17 Optical Switching for High-Performance Computing
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Optical Switching
17.2.1 Basics of Optical Switching
17.2.2 Types of Optical Switching
17.3 Communication vs Computation
17.4 Path Reservation Algorithms
17.5 High-Performance Optical Switching and Routing
17.5.1 HPC Interconnection Challenges
17.5.2 Challenges in the Design of Optical Interconnection Network
17.6 Optical Switching Schemes for HPC Applications
17.6.1 Routing Scheme (Avoid Packet Loss, Contention, etc.)
17.7 Security Issues in Optical Switching
17.7.1 Network Vulnerabilities
17.7.2 Jamming Attacks (or Types of Attacks)
17.8 Optical Switching – Interesting Topics
17.9 Conclusion
Bibliography
Chapter 18 Software for Optical Network Modelling
18.1 Optical Networks
18.1.1 First Generation of Optical Networks
18.1.2 Second Generation of Optical Networks
18.2 Simulation Tools for Planning of Optical Network
18.2.1 Network Simulators
18.2.2 Physical Layer Simulation
18.3 New Technologies
18.3.1 Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
18.3.2 Software-Defined Networking (SDN)
18.3.3 Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning (AI/ML)
Bibliography
Index
EULA